How to Read Electrical Circuits

Introduction on how to read electrical circuits:

Electrical circuits are the combinations of different electrical appliances connected in a particular manner. Electrical circuit is the symbolic representation of the circuit, which helps us to define all the parameters of the circuits such as voltage, current, resistance, capacitance and inductance, etc. It is the diagram in which all the electrical appliances connect. It is the very short way to create the circuit.

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Concept of reading electrical circuits:


In the electrical circuit, first find the values that is given in the standard units. Such as resistance in micro ohms so convert it in ohms, current in milli-ampere then convert it in ampere, voltage in milli-volt so convert it in volt, capacitance in micro farad so convert it in farad. Now first find the equivalent resistance of the circuit.

We have two formulae for finding the equivalent resistance one for series combination of resistances and other for the parallel resistances.

For the series combination of resistances Rs = R1 + R2 + R3

For the parallel combination of resistances `Rp = 1/ (R1) + 1/(R2) + 1/(R3)`

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Procedure for reading electric circuit:


To read any electrical circuit first find that which of the resistances are in series combination and which are in the parallel combination. Now apply the formula for finding the equivalent resistance. Now we use ohm’s law to find the respective current.

First, always try to find the current in the whole circuit and then try to find the potential difference across the series resistance. As we know the potential difference of the series resistance now try to find the potential difference of the parallel resistance. Now again using the Ohm’s law find the current in the remaining resistances. As we know the current and the potential of each resistance, we completely read the electrical circuit. If the circuit containing capacitors then we use the same procedure.  But the formula to find the equivalent capacitor is different from the resistors.

For the series combination of capacitors  `1/C_S = 1/(C1) + 1/ (C2) + 1/(C3)`

For the parallel combination of capacitors Cp = C1 + C2 + C3  same procedure is to followed to completely read the electrical circuit.

Two Types of Reflection

Introduction to Two types of Reflection

When light traveling in one medium strikes a boundary leading to another medium, a part of incident light is through back into the original medium one. This phenomenon is called reflection of light.

Reflection is of two types:

Regular reflection
Irregular reflection or diffuse reflection

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The Two types of reflection


1.    Regular reflection: When the reflection surface is smooth and well polished, the parallel rays falling on it are reflected parallel to another one, the reflected light goes in one particular direction. This is regular reflection. The smooth and well polished surface is called mirror. Silver metal is one of the best reflectors of light. So, ordinary mirrors are made by depositing a thin layer of silver metal on one side of a plane glass sheet. The silver layer is protected by a coat of red paint. The reflection of light in a mirror takes place at the silver surface. A plane mirror is represented by a straight line, with a number of short, oblique lines showing back of the mirror.

2.    Irregular reflection: When the reflecting surface is rough, the parallel rays falling on it are reflected in different direction. Such a reflection is known as diffuse reflection or irregular reflection or even scattering of light. In this, a surface will behave as a smooth surface as long as the surfaces variations are small as compared to the wavelength of incident light. As wavelength of visible light is very small therefore, every surface acts as a rough surface and scattering of light or irregular reflection is more common. For example, any object in a room can be seen from all the parts of the room. This is because surface of the object is rough and it scatters or reflects light in all directions.

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Two types of Reflection : Summary


Reflection of light is the phenomenon of bouncing back of light in the same medium on striking the surface of any object.

Energy Bands in Silicon

Introduction to Energy Bands in silicon:

Before we start with energy bands in silicon,  let us know about energy bands.The energy band of any solid is a structure which describes the allowed and the forbidden values of energies for that solid. The energy band is a function of the diffracted quantum mechanical electron waves which are present in a periodic crystal lattice which have a specific crystal system and specific Bravais lattice.

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Reason behind formation of energy band in elements like silicon


As the electrons of any single isolated atom occupy several atomic orbitals which are in the form of set energy level that are discrete. If a molecule is formed by several atoms, which are brought together, the atomic levels of the atoms split and form a coupled oscillation. Similarly if a large number of atoms of the order of 1020 or more are brought together in the form of a solid, the atomic levels are very large in number and the energy difference between the two energy levels is very small which give rise to a continuous band of the energy levels.


Description of Energy Bands in Silicon


The Fermi level is one of the important levels in the energy band of any material because it determines the nature of the material i.e. the material is conductor or insulator or the semiconductor. The silicon is a semiconductor material and for it the Fermi level is exists essentially in the halfway between the valence and the conduction bands of the silicon. In silicon at 0 K temperatures there is no conduction of electron but at finite temperatures the electrons moves from valence band to the conduction band and the number of electrons which reaches the conduction band contributes for the flow of current in silicon and this current can be modeled by Fermi function.

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Conclusion for Energy Bands in Silicon


There are some intervals in the energy bands which contain no levels or the orbitals these interval forms the energy band gaps. The energy bands of any material determine several characteristics like the electronic and the optical properties of the material.

Elements of a Communication System

Introduction:

Communication system is used to conveying a message from one person to other. By means of an information is the attach which holds people jointly. A communication system is known as grouping of processors and hardware used to bring about the transfer of message through communication. This system having some elements for transfer the signal from source to destination.

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Communication Systems:

A communication system is known as grouping of processors and hardware used to bring about the transfer of message through communication. This process of a system allows us to take total unit.

An energy is need to start the system. The control mechanism regulates the process. That is, it manipulates the message input into whatever form is necessary. The result of this method is the appearance of message in a form which will permit us for communication to take place.

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Elements of communication systems

Let us see about elements of communication systems,

Transmitter:

It is used for modulation and coding the original signal.
In communication system elements, it is used to converting an electrical signal into a form which is comfort for transmission on the physical channel or transmission medium.


Channel:

In communication system elements, the communications channel is known as a communication medium.
It is used to send the signal from the transmitter to the receiver.
The Receiver:

In communication system elements, It is used for demodulation such as decoding the signal from channel.
The receiver is used to recover the message signal enclosed in the received signal.
Noise:

In communication system elements, noise is produced at transmitter due to two process
1. Natural resources 2. Manmade

By nature, such as radiation from sun By manmade, noise made from like vehicles.
This noise can be reduced by using filter.

Initial Velocity

Let us start with the difference between velocity and speed. It is quite obvious after all the discussion about vector and non vector quantities. Speed is basically a measurement with no direction. In case of velocity we also consider direction.

Velocity can be of two types: initial velocity and final velocity. When the object starts its motion then we can say that the initial velocity is zero as it has just started from rest. Similarly we can also consider int. velocity as some constant value. Let us take an example of a car starting from rest and attaining a velocity of 50 km per hour in 1 hour time period.

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So here we can say that the int. velocity of the car is zero and the final velocity is 50 km per hour, directed northwards. Here mentioning the direction is very important as velocity is all about direction, it being a vector quantity.

Let us now discuss Initial velocity formula. We have 3 equations of motion that have a reference to int. velocity and hence can be used for its calculation.
They are as follows:
V = u + a t ------------ > (1)
Here v is the final velocity
U is the int. velocity
A is the acceleration
T is the time period.
So u = v – a t
Also the second equation is
S = u t + 1.5 a t^2 - - - - - - >(2)
Here s is the distance covered in time interval t.
A is the acceleration
We also have a third equation for calculating velocity. It is as follows:
V^2 = u^2 + 2 a s - - - - - - -> (3)

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Here v is the final velocity and a is the initial velocity.
All these are initial velocity equation. We can also say that u^2 = v^2 – 2 a s - - - - - - - > (4)
Let us take a real world example to clear the concept. Let us assume the final velocity of the car is 50 m per sec and the time taken to complete the journey is 2 hours. Also the acceleration is 10 meter per second square. So now using first formula we will try to calculate the initial velocity.
Hence v = u + a t
Or 50 = u + 20
U = 50 – 20 = 30 m per sec

Inertia

Newton’s first law of motion explained that if an object is in rest then it is said to be in rest and when it is moved then it is in motion, so it proves that all objects have natural tendency to be in rest, they resist their motion.

So the property of any object to stop its state of motion is known as inertia. This word can also be described in terms of a resistance in the motion of object. So this is the particular property of an object to stop any alteration in its motion. Please express your views of this topic Angular Acceleration Problems by commenting on blog.

It is basic of classical physics and use to know about the matter’s motion and the effect of applied forces on the motion of matter. In general words, this can also be explained as the resistance to alter in the value of the velocity or the momentum. There is not any particular theory that describes the source of (In).
The law of inertia states the same definition of (In). This explains it as the specific property of any object to stop any change in its motion. As Newton's states that for the movement of an object, the external force is required like friction or gravity.

So first this concept was explained with taking the example of earth as the earth also revolves around the sun. And if the body is moved on a flat surface in a given straight direction then it is continued with its speed with the same direction unless disturbed.

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The Inertia Equation can be written with the use of mass and radius of moving body. So the formula for the (I) may be generally expressed as; I = k m r^2; where m is the mass of body, r is the distance travelled, and k is (I) constant which depends on the shape of the moved body.
For example; if we discuss about the thin-walled hollow cylinder, then the momentum of a thin-walled hollow cylinder is like the point mass. So it can be expressed as; I = m x r^2  and k is equal to one as it is taken one for point mass, where m is hollow’s mass and r is for distance.

Here we are taking two distances; one is the distance between axis and the thin walled hollow and ro is the distance between axis and outside hollow. So for the hollow cylinder: I = 1/2 m (ri2 + ro2). But for a solid cylinder, it is equal to the; I = 1/2 m r^2 (3c).
We can also measure the Product of Inertia by measuring (I) of a moving body in two different axes.  As it is measured by the mass of an object, so the Units of Inertia is kgm2. This is Inertia Units in SI system.

Uses of Solar Energy

Introduction to solar energy

Sun is the primary source of heat and light, all living things need sunlight for it's survival, we are getting various forms solar radiations like UV radiations, gamma radiations,infraded radiations etc, solar energy can be used as various other forms of energy,so, we can use solar energy as alternative sources of energies.In 21st century, obviously we should depend upon alternative sources of energy,because some sources of energy are  limited in nature, so it is known non-renewable sources of energy like fossil fuels,by considering these situations, we should depend upon renewable sources of energy like solar energy.

Solar energy  be used to run vehicles, in solar lights,in solar traffic signals, in solar water heaters, in solar cookers,plants prepare food by the process of photosynthesis using solar energy etc.

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Applications of solar energy


Solar water heaters

Solar water heaters are really boon to the mankind, which conserves other sources of energy and it is eco friendly, in solar water heater it has solar panels consisting of photovoltaic cells,semi conductors, which are made out of silicon chips. these silicon chips absorb solar energy and help in heating up the water, there is an arrangement of inlet and outlet for water. water has to pass through in these set up of solar water heater.

Solar heating system composed of solar thermal collectors, a water storage tank, interconnecting pipes and a fluid system to move the heat from the collector to the tank, so in this process heating up the water by using direct sunlight, no electricity is required.

we can use this solar water heating system for various purposes like under floor heating, heating swimming pools, energy input for space heating or cooling, storing solar energy for future like for winter season by storing solar heat in the ground.

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Solar vehicles


Solar energy can be used to run vehicles like solar bicycle, solar cars, solar autos etc, these vehicles proved and it may replace our existing needs to run vehicles ,basically a solar vehicle is a electrically powered by solar energy. the photovoltaic cells absorb solar energy, then which converted to electrical energy.

Kinds of Forces

Introduction to kinds of force:
Sir Isaac Newton was the first who gave an exact definition of force.He stated that :

Force is the external agency applied on a body to change its state of rest and motion.

There are four basic kinds of forces in nature. They are

Gravitational force
Electromagnetic force
Strong nuclear force
Weak nuclear force
Lets see a brief explanation of the different kinds of forces.

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Explanation of gravitational and electromagnetic forces:


Gravitational force:

It is the force between any two objects in the universe. It is an attractive force by virtue of their masses. By Newton's law of gravitation, the gravitational force between tow bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Gravitational force is the weakest force among the fundamental forces of nature but has the greatest large- scale impact on the universe. Among the basic force only gravity works universally on all matter and energy, and is universally attractive.

Electromagnetic force:

It is the force between charged particles for example the force between two electrons, or the force between tow current carrying wires. Electromagnetic forces for like charges is repulsive and for unlike charges is attractive. The electromagnetic force obeys inverse square law. It is very strong compared to the gravitational force. It is the combination of electrostatic and magnetic forces.

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Explanation of strong and weak nuclear forces:


Strong nuclear force:
It is the strongest of all the basic forces of nature. It, however, has the shortest range, of the order of 10-15 m. This force holds the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus of an atom.

Weak nuclear force:
Weak nuclear force is important in come types of nuclear process such as `beta` -decay. This force is not as weak as the gravitational force.

Average Speed

Average Speed

When a body moves, sometimes it accelerates and other time it decelerates due to the traffic congestion on the road, so the speed of the body is not constant over the whole journey and keeps on changing with respect to several factors.
If we need to calculate the speed for the entire journey it is calculated by finding the total distance travelled and the time taken to travel it. This is known as the average speed of the body for the journey it has travelled.

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Average Speed Formula

The formula for finding the avg speed is;
Saverage = (total distance travelled / total time taken);
where, total distance travelled is equal to the distance between the source and destination of the body and the total time is the time taken to move between the source and destination by the body.

Formula for Average Speed
The formula of avg speed is as follows;
Saverage = (DTotal / TTotal);
DTotal = Total distance travelled the body;
TTotal = Total time taken in travelling the distance DTotal by the body.

Average Speed Definition

The avg speed is defined as the average of the speed of the body over the total distance travelled by it. The body might be travelling at different speed over the portion of the total distance but it maintains the avg speed for the entire journey as constant. The avg speed can be obtained by dividing the distance travelled by the object by the time taken to the distance.
Average is helpful in identifying the speed of the body when it is travelling at different speeds for the different portions of journey. It is used to calculate the speed of the object in varying traffic conditions.

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What is Average Speed

To understand the average let us take an example. A truck is climbing the hill at the speed of 15 km/hr for 1 hour and then it started to slow down as the hill is steeper and travels at 5 km/hr. After 2 hours the truck started to climb down the hill at the speed of 25 km/hr for 1 hour to completely come to the plain.
In this journey as we see the truck is moving at different speed at different time and hence it is difficult to identify the speed of the truck but if divide the total distance travelled by it with the total time it took to travel the total distance then what we obtain is the avg speed.
In this example the avg speed is
Avg speed = 50 / 4 = 12.5 km/hr.

Angular Displacement

Angular Displacement

Displacement is known as the change in the position of body or object with respect to a point of reference. Displacement is a scalar quantity. Similarly when an object or body changes both the position and angle then it’s displacement is calculated as angular displacement.
Angular-displacement is the change of the angle and the position of the body with respect to its initial position and angle.
Although displacement has magnitude and direction still it is a scalar quantity and not the vector quantity.

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Angular Displacement Formula

The angle of displacement is always measured in radians, since it is the change in the angle of the body with respect to its initial position.
The formula to find angle of displacement is given as;
Angular-Displacement = ???
Where,
??? = angle between the initial position of body to its final position.

How to Find Angular Displacement?

For finding angle of displacement, we need to follow these steps;
1. First obtain initial position of the body;
2. Obtain the final position of the body;
3. Find the angle between the two positions;
4. The angle is the measure of the angle of displacement.

In case if the linear displacement and the radius of curve is given then use the following equation to obtain the angle of displacement;
Angular-Displacement = ??? =
Where,
s = linear displacement; and
r = radius of curve through which the body rotates.

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Example of angular displacement:

A car is moving with the speed of 40 km/h on a curved surface having a diameter of 50 cms. Find the angle of displacement of the car along the curve at time t = 10 sec, 20 sec and 50 sec?
Solution:
As given in the question above we need to first identify the linear displacement at different time and then using the relation between the linear displacement and angle of displacement we will find the angle of displacement of the car at different times.
For time t = 10 sec;
s = 40 * (10 / 60 * 60) = 111.11 meters;
so the angle of displacement at time t = 10 sec is;
???t=10 = 111.11 / 0.5 = 222.22 radians

For time t = 20 sec;
s = 40 * (20 / 60 * 60) = 222.22 meters;
so the angle of displacement at time t = 20 sec is;
???t=20 = 222.22 / 0.5 = 444.44 radians

For time t = 50 sec;
s = 40 * (50 / 60 * 60) = 555.55 meters;
so the angle of displacement at time t = 50 sec is;
???t=50 = 555.55 / 0.5 = 1111.11 radians

Man Landing on Mars

Introduction to man landing on mars:

Mars is the 4th planet from the sun.  It is called the "Red planet" because of its reddish appearance. Mars have similar surface feature compared to our earth and moon such as volcanoes, valleys, deserts, polar ice caps and the impact craters of the moon.The seasonal cycles of mars as well as the rotational period is very much similar to the Earth. Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos. Mars was formed around the same time as the Earth. Both Mars and earth are rocky planets. Mars diameter is almost half the diameter of the earth, a far thin atmosphere and desert-like surface too. Mars has the same land area as the Earth as we know that our earth's surface has only a quarter area of land, the remaining being water.



Exploration of Mars


The Soviet Union, United States of America, Europe and Japan are active participants in the space exploration program which involves the exploration of the planet Mars. Dozens of robotic spacecraft, including rovers, landers and orbiters have been launched towards Mars since 1960s. These missions were carried out in order to gather data about the planet's current conditions and history and also whether any  possibility for the sustenance of human life on the planet.

After many attempts of landing on Venus, Venera-7 landed on Venus in the year 1970. Another, Mariner-10 has also passed by Mercury and sent back pictures of the mountains and the craters there. Mars is even more interesting and both the Russians and Americans have sent space crafts to it. The Viking, launched by the Americans made gentle landing there in 1976, sending back pictures direct from the surface. Jupiter and Saturn have also been bypassed. Both Voyager-I and 2 sent back clear pictures of Jupiter's clouds and moons and the rings of Saturn whereas Viking I and II sent back data about the Martian atmosphere and soil apart from sending images of Mars.

Meanwhile the USA and the former USSR undertook a joint US-Soviet manned space mission called the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. The Apollo Spacecraft carrying three astronauts and the Soyuz-19 Spacecraft, carrying two cosmonauts were launched separately on 15th July 1975. Two days later, the spacecraft approached each other and docked in space. For two days, the crew conducted joint experiments and surveys. Many other probes were launched during the decade of the seventies. The space probe Pioneer-10 sent by USA explored the asteroid belt and took photographs of Jupiter from a close range.

The eighties have seen many significant developments in space science. Space shuttles were designed by the US. The space shuttle takes off like a rocket, flies like a spaceship and lands like a glider. Unlike an ordinary rocket it can be used again and again. The picture below shows a space shuttle Columbia gliding into land. This first space shuttle was launched in 1981.


Landing of Man on Mars


The permanent manned space station called Mir was launched by the Soviet Union in 1986. Since then many crew have manned this space station and conducted experiments in space.

The year 1997 marked the return to the red planet. For almost twenty years every Mars mission ended in failure. The two Russian Phobos crafts failed. The US Mars observer exploded as it prepared to enter the planet's orbit and the mighty Russian Mars' 96 craft did not escape from earth's atmosphere. Finally Mars path finder parachuted down to Mars and its new landing technology proved to be a success. A little six-wheeled river Sojourner, spent nearly three months analyzing Martian rocks before the battery went flat. More missions have been planned, to bring rock samples to earth and even to land first human on Mars.

Barack Obama the "President of the United States of America"  truly believes that in the next 20-25 years, humans can be sent to orbit Mars followed by a safe landing and shall return safely back to earth. A number of nations and organisations have long-term intentions to send Humans to the planet Mars. The United States  has a number  of missions currently exploring Mars. The European nations has sent robotic probes and has long-term plans to send humans too. Russia, Japan and China are keen in sending humans to Mars too.

"Its high time the beings in outer space stop chomping on their Alien bars,

Because the humans are bound to land on MARS"

Used Appliances

Introduction to used appliances:

Do you want that stunningly looking LED home theater television at Joe’s as yours? It’s not at all a big deal to own it. Just pay a visit to your nearest used appliances selling outlet. It won’t kill your urge to own one. I swear.

Second hand selling market is a trend everywhere around the globe. Anything is available for a reasonable price with reliable servicing offers. When you sell your old buggy television in order to get it exchanged with a new one, just remember one thing. Someone else is there to buy that product for a big amount of money for the same product that you just abandoned for a cheap price.



E-waste


It’s a real fact that many families with low living standards are enjoying their lives using these appliances that you consider as an e-waste. The stores that accept the used appliances may have a thorough check up on the products to find any inappropriate things that may cost as unfavorable while reselling it. They might give some advertisements carrying fancy words that the products they are selling are gently used, old reliable goods etc. It’s all are the methods to catch the attention of the middle class customers. They all win in that also.
.

Selling of used appliances


The products are sold with a label of gently used goods. So through this label they can gain the trust of the customers. The customer comes to a used appliances shop to buy a product which he already knows much about. So the shop owner cannot play tricks on him much like he did while selling a new product. But he can hide any faults to some extent. For example, there is a CRT television displayed to get sold. The television might be having some faults like failing of picture tube to display after 10 minutes or like that. This type of faults can be easily hidden from a customer. Also the shop owner can argue and win that it is something that went wrong with the customer’s household electric connection that caused damage to the picture tube.

The used appliance market is a safer place to bargain if you are confident about the reliability of the product. Also you will get better service for that too. Most shops offer 30 days warranty for their products.

Universe Solar System

Introduction to Universe Solar System:

Family of the sun is given the name solar system. Sun is the centre of solar system. Nine planets are revolving around the sun in the elliptical orbits. The distnace of the planets from the sun and their velocities keep on changing as they revolve around the sun.

Some other heavenly bodies also revolve around the planets and are called satellites. These are also called moons of the planets. Some other heavenly bodies revolving around the sun are asteroids, comets and meteors etc.

Let us discuss about universe solar system and its objects in detail:

Description of universe solar system:

1. Sun:

- It is the nearest star that we can see.

- It shines of its own.

- It is also called luminous body of our solar system

- The mass of the sun is 1.99 x 1030 kgm and its diameter is 1.4 x 109 m.

- It is about 109 times the diameter of the earth.

- The average distance of the sun from earth is about 1.496 x 1011 m, which is called one astronomical unit (A.U.). It is a unit used for the measurement of large distances.

- Sun rotates about its axis from east to west and completes one rotation in approximately 30 days.

2. Planets:

- Planets appear to be bright and do not emit light of their own. They reflect light of sun.

- These heavenly bodies revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits.

- Nine planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. These planets are written in the order of increasing distance from the sun.


Some other Objects in Universe Solar System:


3. Asteroids:

- Asteroids are very tiny planets (pieces of large planets) revolving around the sun between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

- Like regular planets, asteroids also revolve in elliptical orbits nearly in the same plane as that of the earth.

- The largest asteroid is called Ceres having radius  350 km and the smallest one is having radius only 50 m.

4. Comets:

- Comets are made up of rock like material surrounded by large masses of easily vapourised substances like water, ammonia and methane.

- The comets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits.

- As comets come closer to the sun, the water vaporizes due to heat of sun.

- The light of sun exerts a pressure on these vapours and forces them to move away from the comet in the form of a tail.

- Edmund Halley discovered a comet in 18th century named as Halley's comet. This comet completes its orbit around the sun in 76 years. It can be seen in the sky after every 76 years. Last, Halley's comet was seen from earth in April 1986.

5. Meteors:

- When comets break while approaching the sun, the smaller pieces become visible.

- When they enter earth's atmosphere and heat up due to friction, they catch fire while moving towards earth.

- Therefore, we see a streakof light during night.

- These 'shooting stars' are known as meteors.

- They are of different sizes and weights.

- Most of them are in small sizes, and get completely burnt and do not reach earth. These are called meteors.

- Some heavy meteors landing on the earth are called meteorites.

- One of the biggest meteorites fell in Siberia on June 30, 1908.

Adding Sugar to Water

Introduction to adding sugar to water:

Sugar is a crystalline carbohydrate. It comes from sugarcane. It is sweet in taste. When added to the water, the sugar particles break down into smaller pieces. These small particles then arrange themselves together with the water particles and form a liquid solution..Sugar particle will no longer be visible with our naked eyes.

Sugar is soluble in water. When you add sugar to water and dissolve it volume of water before sugar is added is lesser than the volume of sugar in water. When we add sugar to water, the sugar crystal dissolves and it goes into the solution. Infinite number of sugar cannot be dissolved in a fixed volume of water. When as much sugar is dissolved, the solution is called saturated solution. The saturation point is different at different temperature .more sugar is held in a water, if the temperature is higher.


Adding sugar to water:


The size of the sugar crystal increases by the following process

1) Add sugar to the boiled water and stir it., till it dissolves.
2) Pour the solution in a jar and cover it with a waxed paper.

3) Dip a cotton string in a sugar solution, take it out, and dry it for few days.

4) The string after drying should be suspended in sugar solution and left undisturbed for seven days. at the end of seven days ,we will see that the size of a sugar crystal has grown in size with sharp edges and smooth faces. Dissolve more sugar to water on heating. by this solution becomes supersaturated. And the process of crystallization begins, once the heated solution cools down.

Explanation to adding sugar to water:


Add a pinch of sugar to water and feed a plant. That has wilted. And is not watered for a few days. the sugar helps the plants to get back to normal quickly. But this doesn’t always work. If the amount of sugar in the soil becomes too high, it promotes a higher incidence of fungi and bacteria. A typical fungus that thrives on sugar is yeast. Excess amounts of yeast causes an increase in the risk of an infection to plants and humans.

Planet With Largest Moon

Introduction to planet with largest moon:

A solid heavenly body that revolves around the planet is called its natural satellite or its moon. For example, moon is the natural satellite of the earth because it revolves around the earth. Moons do not have their own light. They reflect the sunlight falling on them and therefore, appear shining. Except Mercury and Venus, all planets have their own  moons. In general, moons are much smaller than the planets. We can see the earth’s moon by unaided eye. The other moons of other planets were discovered after the invention of astronomical telescope and a large number of moons were discovered only after the spacecraft flew past them. The different moons have different features; some of them are earth’s like moon having large number of craters. Some of the asteroids have moon also. The asteroid IDA has also a moon. The planet Saturn has largest moon named as Titan.


Largest moon with planet:


Saturn is the second largest planet of our solar system. Saturn is known as the Jovian planet, because its structure is like Jupiter. Voyager explore the Saturn in 1980 – 81. Saturn is the sixth planet of our solar system. Saturn is the only planet whose rings are visible form the earth’s based optical instruments. The rings of the Saturn are formed by particles of ice and dust revolving around the planet. The particles in the ring having size in nanometers to meters.


Characteristics of the Planet with largest moon:


The density of the Saturn is less than the density of water. The atmosphere of Saturn mainly contains hydrogen, helium and methane. Saturn has 62 moons at present. Out of 62 moons, 53 are well named. Titan is the largest moon of the Saturn. The atmosphere of Titan is nitrogen rich as like earth in early years. Saturn is flat at poles so that it rotates very fast on its axis. Saturn takes 10 hours 39 minutes to rotate on its own axis and 29.5 earth’s year to revolve around the sun. The wind blows at very high speed on Saturn. The size of Titan is more than the size of planet Mercury.

Negative and Positive Wires

Introduction to negative and positive wires:

Let us first discuss about electricity, which can pass through the wires. There are two types of current, one is called the alternating current, which is used, in electrical mains and the other is called direct current, which is used, in the car’s light and in the radio. Direct current is obtained by the battery.  Let us discuss the wires, which carry the electric current.


Types of Negative and positive wires


Generally, there are three types of the wires:

Positive wire,
Negative wire and
Ground wire


In case of direct current, the positive wire is the wire, which carries 120 V. Negative wire is the wire, which has about 0 V. Ground wire is actually connected to the ground. Negative wires should be at zero potential or close to zero potential. It is the central point between the two phases of the electrical service coming to your house from the transformer on the electrical pole. Positive wire is the wire, which supplies the electric current to the electrical appliance. It is supplied to the devices in your home through a set of circuit breakers or fuses in older homes. It is wired directly to the outlets, and goes to the permanently installed lighting through the permanent wall switches. There is a standard colors in house wiring are: positive wire is of red color, negative wire is of black in color and the ground wire is of green in color.


Conclusion for negative and positive wires


Some of the devices in our daily life have only two flat prongs, and some have the third, round grounding prong. The two-prong devices are typically low current, low-power devices like lamps, bulbs, clock radios, can openers and the like. The third prong generally appears on higher-powered devices: washing machines, vacuum cleaners, televisions, computers, leaf blowers, drills, etc. This is usually done for safety reasons. This is also, why miswired outlets are dangerous: if the neutral and hot are reversed, the appliance will work just the same. However, if the appliance fails, the 'stray' energy remains under the 'top' insulating layer (next to the user), Not in the bottom one, putting the user at much greater risk. In older tools with metal cases, the user would actually get electric shocks in this event.

Home Electric Power

Introduction to Electric Power:

Electricity or electric power is generated at place far away from where it is to be consumed. The electric power is transmitted over long distances at high voltage which is gradually reduced by using step down transformers to 230 V, at which it is supplied to our household. Before, the power lines are connected to the electric meter which records the units of electric power consumed, a fuse is connected. This is known as company fuse. I like to share this Basic Kinematic Equations with you all through my article.

The wires coming out of the meter are connected to a main switch. When the main switch is on, then only the house receives power. After the main switch another fuse is provided, known as the consumer’s fuse. The main switch is a double pole switch. It has iron covering. The iron covering is earthed. The switch and the meter are locally earthed. From the meter the connections are taken to the distribution board.


Elecrical power system types


There are two types of wiring system

1. The tree system

In this system, the connections are taken from the distribution board to different parts of the house, each connection resembling a branch of a tree. Each connection is taken through a fuse F. It should be noted that different connections are taken in parallel, so that when the fuse in one part blows off, the remaining parts are unaffected.


2. The ring system

The ring system consists of a ring circuit starting from the main fuse box, which contains a fuse of 30 amperes. For each appliance a separate connection starts from the live part of the ring and ends on the ring. Since the power rating of each appliance is known therefore, connecting wires of proper current capacity can be used for each appliance. This makes it less expensive. Each appliance is connected with separate fuse, so that one fuse blows off the other appliances in the same room continue to work.

Earthing

To avoid this shock from the appliance, appliance is earthed. That is, we connect the metal case of the body to the earth which is zero potential. Besides the live and neutral wires, a third known as the earth wire is also provided.

Galaxy Definition

Introduction to galaxy definition:

We always observes that there are infinite numbers of stars in the sky. The question arises hat how are the stars distributed in the space. Astronomers have found that the starts are arranged in the huge groups. These groups are called the galaxies. The stars in the galaxy are held together by the gravitational attraction between them. Here we discuss about the galaxy.


A few points about Galaxy


Generally, a galaxy is the clusters of stars in the large amount. A component of the universe that has a huge group of stars and other celestial bodies bound together by the force of gravitation is called a galaxy. Apart from stars, a galaxy also has huge clouds of gases from which the new stars are born. A galaxy may have planets, moons, asteroids, comets and another celestial bodies. The number of stars in a galaxy can range about a million to hundred of billions. It is also estimated that there are over 100 billions galaxies in the universe and astronomers are discovering more every day. The galaxy in which our sun is located is called the Milky Way galaxy or Akashganga.


Types of galaxies


Galaxies have different shapes. Based on the shapes, mainly, three types of the galaxies are there, which are  Spiral galaxies, elliptical galaxies and irregular galaxies. In a spiral galaxy the stars forms a big spiral pinwheel. The Milky Way galaxy is a spiral galaxy. In an elliptical galaxy the stars are confined mainly in ellipsoid volume. An irregular galaxy does not have any particular shape.



Conclusion to galaxy


Most of the stars of the Milky Way galaxy lie in the disc shaped region, this region is called the galactic disc. The central part of the disc is thicker and bulges on both the sides. The density of stars in the bulge is much higher than that in the outer region of the galaxy. Milky Way galaxy is a large galaxy. The diameter of the galactic disc is about 100, 000 light years and its average thickness is about 70 light years.

Electricity Generation From Water

Introduction:

Electricity can be generated from water in two methods; one is the method where we use the potential energy of the water in dams using the water wheels. The other source of energy is capturing the energy from the ocean waves. The energy generated by the water is a renewable energy, as we know that water is present abundantly in the nature and there is no consumption of water during the generation of electricity from the water. Most of the countries rely on this method that is production of electricity using water because it is a renewable energy resources and gives sustainable energy.  The energy generated by the water is termed as the hydro electricity.


Sources of electricity generation


Dams: In this case whenever a dam is built at the beginning itself the tunnels are built where the water flows and these tunnels are lined with turbines. As we let out the water to flow through these tunnels the water flows over the turbines which are lined along the tunnels.As a result these turbines rotate,and thus electricity is generated.

Ocean waves: The electricity generated from the ocean is known as ocean wave power because this energy is generated by the oceanic waves. This is the process where the tidal energy is used to generate the electricity, whenever there is a high tide on the sea shore or the oceans there is lot of energy in these waves which is converted into electricity by running of the turbines. The water from the tides is stored and then this water is left over the turbines which in turn produce the electricity.


Run of the river: This is process where the natural elevations on the rivers are made use to produce the electricity. In this case the water is made to fall on the turbines which are placed at the bottom of the elevation of the river, it can be a natural or a man made elevation on the river. Here also the turbine are used to produce the electricity.

Light Measurement

There are many different units for Light Measurements. Let’s first discuss some of them.

1. Candela (cd)- It is the unit of Lumen Measurement of a light source in a specific direction, also called as candle. This intensity is perpendicular to the direction of the surface of a black body.
2. Foot candle (fc or ftc)- It is a unit of intensity which used to measure in lumens per square foot.
3. Lux (lx)-  It is the unit of illumination which equals to one lumen/ square metre.
4. End Foot candle- This unit is a measurement which is based on the focused beam only. It is a focal beam measurement from point A to point B at one-foot distance.
5. End Lumens- This measurement is based on a spot of light.


6. Luminance- Also called as Luminous Flux which is the quantity of light leaves the lamp and measured in lumens (lm).
7. Luminous (Light Level): It is the amount of light measured on the work plane in the lighted space. Remember a work plane is an imaginary horizontal, tilted or vertical line where the tasks in the space are performed.
8. Beam Lumens- It is the total flux in that region of space where the intensity is more than 50 percent of the maximum intensity.
9. Lux- It is a metric unit of measure for illuminance of a surface. One lux = one lumen/ square meter= 0.0929 footcandles.
10. Light Level- It is the measurement of intensity on a plane at a specific location known as illuminance which is measured in footcandles.
11. Efficiency—the measure of the luminous efficiency of a radiant flux which is expressed in lumens/ watt is equals to efficiency.
12. Watt- It is a measurement of electrical power which does not relate to the output level and defines as the rate of energy consumption by an electrical device in operating stage. Watts= Volts x Amps x Power Factor (PF)



The wavelength is a length of a function period which shows the distance between any two points with the same phase and measured in meter light.  Let’s discuss; ‘How to Measure Wavelength of Light’? It can calculate either from the energy or frequency by using the speed and Planck constants. Remember the energy is typically expressed in electron volt (eV) units and the frequency is expressed in Hertz where one Hz equals 1/sec. Therefore the relation between velocity, frequency and wavelength can be written as follows;

Velocity of Light = (wavelength) x (frequency)(meters) x (cycles per second or Hertz)
= (3 x 108 m/sec)

Initial Velocity

The first question that arises when we read about distance, speed and velocity is the basic difference between speed and velocity. Velocity is the directional quantity while speed is not. We have already discussed about the importance of direction while calculating vector quantities.Having problem with Formula for Velocity keep reading my upcoming posts, i will try to help you.

Velocity in simple terms can be defined as the distance covered per unit time in a particular direction. This means that here we are also taking the direction in consideration. If we were to define speed we could have said it the distance per unit time. We will not have mentioned the direction bit.

We can divide the velocity into two parts. These are final and the initial velocity. As it is clear from the name the In. velocity is basically the starting velocity of an object or a body while final velocity is the finishing velocity. It may seem confusing at first but is quite easy.


Let us take an example. If the car starts and attains a velocity of 30 kilometers per hour then the initial vel. Considered would be zero km per hour while the final velocity will be 30 km per hour after 4 hours in a particular direction say southwards. Calculate Initial Velocity is easy. We can directly use the equation of motion which says
v = u + a t - - - - - - -(1)
Here v is the final velocity
U is the initial velocity
A is the acceleration
And t is the time taken to attain the final velocity.
Also s = u t + ½ a t 2 - - - - - - - - -(2)
Here s is the distance covered in a particular time interval.
This is the Equation for Initial Velocity. There is yet another equation for its Calculating Initial Velocity. It is:
V2 = u2 + 2 a s - - - - - - - - - - -(3)
Let us assume a ball is rolling on a platform. It attains a velocity of 10 m per seconds with an acceleration of 4 m per second 2. The time taken is 2 seconds.
Let us try to calculate the initial velocity.  Take the first equation into consideration.
So v = u + a t
10 = u + 2 * 4
10 = u + 8
u = 2
So initial vel. is  2 metre per second.
You can also calculate it according to different values of s, a, v, t in different situations.

Velocity Mass Equation

Mass in special relativity

The term mass  in special relativity usually refers to the rest mass of the object, which is the Newtonian mass as measured by an observer moving along with the object. The invariant mass is another name for the rest mass of single particles. The more general invariant mass (calculated with a more complicated formula) loosely corresponds to the "rest mass" of a "system." Thus, invariant mass is a natural unit of mass used for systems which are being viewed from their center of momentum frame, as when any closed system (for example a bottle of hot gas) is weighed, which requires that the measurement be taken in the center of momentum frame where the system has no net momentum. Under such circumstances the invariant mass is equal to the relativistic mass (discussed below), which is the total energy of the system divided by c (the speed of light) squared. I like to share this Formula for Acceleration due to Gravity with you all through my article.

The concept of invariant mass does not require bound systems of particles, however. As such, it may also be applied to systems of unbound particles in high-speed relative motion. Because of this, it is often employed in particle physics for systems which consist of widely separated high-energy particles. If such systems were derived from a single particle, then the calculation of the invariant mass of such systems, which is a never-changing quantity, will provide the rest mass of the parent particle (because it is conserved over time).
Despite the convenience that the invariant mass is the same as the total energy of the system (divided by c2) in the center of momentum frame, the invariant mass of systems (like the rest mass of single particles) is also the same quantity in all inertial frames. Thus, it cannot be destroyed, and is conserved, so long as the system is closed. (In this case, "closure" implies that an idealized boundary is drawn around the system, and no mass/energy is allowed across it).


The term relativistic mass is also sometimes used. This is the sum total quantity of energy in a body or system (divided by c2). As seen from the center of momentum frame, the relativistic mass is also the invariant mass, as discussed above (just as the relativistic energy of a single particle is the same as its rest energy, when seen from its rest frame). For other frames, the relativistic mass (of a body or system of bodies) includes a contribution from the "net" kinetic energy of the body (the kinetic energy of the center of mass of the body), and is larger the faster the body moves. Thus, unlike the invariant mass, the relativistic mass depends on the observer's frame of reference. However, for given single frames of reference and for closed systems, the relativistic mass is also a conserved quantity.Although some authors present relativistic mass as a fundamental concept of the theory, it has been argued that this is wrong as the fundamentals of the theory relate to space-time. There is disagreement over whether the concept is pedagogically useful. The notion of mass as a property of an object from Newtonian mechanics does not bear a precise relationship to the concept in relativity.

For a discussion of mass in general relativity, see mass in general relativity. For a general discussion including mass in Newtonian mechanics, see the article on mass.

Used Laser Cutting Machine

Introduction to used laser cutting machines:

First we will discuss about LASER. LASER means the Light Amplification by Stimulated Radiation and Emission. The laser beams are highly energetic and highly coherent. There are different types of laser machines, which produces laser beams such as ruby laser, helium neon laser. There are different stages of  lasers. For example, ruby laser is the three stage laser and Helium neon is a four stage laser. Let us discuss about the used laser cutting machines. Please express your views of this topic Emp Bomb Effects by commenting on blog.



Use of laser cutting machines


The laser machines cut the materials by vaporizing the material at that particular place. The laser beam is focussed on the path of the size of thick human hair. In other words we can say that the laser beams be focussed on 0.005 inch and leaving vapours and ash to exhaust. We can cut the steel sheet in a desired shape by the use of laser cutting machines.

The laser beams can cut the diamond with the very fine cut. The cutting of the diamond in the fine mode is possible due to the laser cutting machines.


Factors relating to laser cutting machines


There are some factors in the laser cutting machines. The main factors are power of the laser beams, laser focusing, speed of cut, thickness of the material which is to be cut, etc. The power of the laser cutting machine is the main factor of the machine. If the power is more, then we cut deep inside the surface and more quicker. The laser cutting machine is of 50 Watt power. We can use the power ranging between 1% to 100%. Laser machine has more power as they starts up. So we have to keep warming the laser machines. The lasers have the working area of 12 inches by 24 inches. Is this topic Physics Projectile Motion Problems hard for you? Watch out for my coming posts.


Modes of cutting through a laser


The laser cutting machine has two modes of the cutting, one is called the vector mode and the other is called the raster mode. The mode which is used for designing in the cutting is called the vector mode. Rastering mode is used for the engraving purposes. The laser head of the laser cutting machines moves back and forth to cut a picture.


Conclusion for the laser cutting machines


Laser beam should be perfectly focused before use on any material. Generally the lens of the laser cutting machines has two inches focusing length. The lenses may be shorter or longer. Longer the lenses, lesser is the accuracy. It is used to cut the wood, paper, fibre glass, diamonds, etc.

Universe Infinite Finite

Introduction to universe infinite finite:

Before the study of this topic, the first question arises that what is universe. The space in which the galaxies, black holes, solar systems, suns, moons and millions of others celestial bodies is called universe. Ancient philosophers believed that earth is the centre of the universe, around which everything else in the universe revolved. They even thought that the earth to be flat in shape. To understand the creation of the universe, we had to first learn a lot about the earth and the solar system, galaxies and so on. Here we discuss how the universe is expanding. I like to share this Electromagnetic Pulse Effects with you all through my article.


Modern theories on Universe


There are several modern theories about the beginning of the universe and its future. Now the scientists think that the big bang theory offers the best explanation about the universe. This theory was proposed when the scientists concluded that the universe is expanding. In 1920, Professor Edwin Hubble observed that the frequency of light coming from far off galaxies decreased, i.e., the frequency of the light coming from the far off galaxies showed a red shift. Professor Edwin Hubble studied these red shifts carefully and concluded as follows:

All galaxies are moving away from each other.
The speed with which any two galaxies move away from each other is directly proportional to the distance between them. This is called the Hubble’s law. The larger the distance between two galaxies, faster they move away from each other.
In other words, from the observed red shift, the frequency of light coming from the far off galaxies, Professor Edwin Hubble concluded that the universe is expanding. Thus, the universe is infinite in size.


Conclusion on universe whether it is infinite or finite


The future of the universe is totally depending on the mass of the universe. If the mass is large enough, gravitational attraction will slow down the expansion and eventually stop it. After that, the galaxies will move towards each other due to the gravitational force between them. They will merge in the one lump of the super dense material. Again, a big bang will take place and a new universe will be created. Therefore, we will have an oscillating universe.

Properties of Matter Solid

Introduction to Properties of Matter Solid:
Let us see about the properties of matter solid. Matter is prepared by molecules and atoms.  We have three states of matter. The three state of matter is differing from each other because of the difference in the magnitude in the intermolecular forces. One of the states is Solid. The solid has an exact shape and size.

Solids possess a definite shape and volume at ordinary temperature. Depending on the arrangement of atoms the properties of solid varies. Based on their internal structure, solids matter are classified into two types- crystalline and amorphous.


Types of Solids:


Based on their internal structure, solids matter are classified into two types. They are,

Crystalline
Amorphous


Crystalline Solid:

The properties are, atoms are arranged in a regular, repeated and periodic pattern in crystalline solids. This orderly arrangement of atoms resembles that of brick laying by masons. Examples of crystalline solids are diamonds, quartz, rocksalt, mica, sugar, metals, etc.

Amorphous solid:

The properties are, atoms are set in a disorderly manner in amorphous solid. The best case of an amorphous solid is glass. Other examples are plastic materials, wood, etc.


Elasticity:

An external force ‘F’ is applied on the body of mass ‘m’, the body acquire an acceleration ‘a’ such that a=F/m. Due to the change, the body may suffer a deformation. This external force is known as deforming force.

As the body is deformed, internal forces are set up within the body, which tends to bring the body back to the original shape. The force developed within the body on account of relative molecular displacement is called internal force or elastic force or restoring force.

Elasticity is the properties of the material of a body by virtue of which the body regains its original shape when the deforming force is removed. Few bodies, which do not show any tendency to recover their original shape after the removal of deforming force. Such bodies are called plastic bodies.

The property by virtue of which the body does not regain its original shape after the removal of the deforming force is called plasticity. The restoring force developed per unit area of the body is called as stress. Its unit is Nm-2. The strain produced in a body is defined as the ration of change in dimension to its original dimension. The maximum value of stress within which a body regains its original state is called elastic limit.

Hooke’s law states that within the elastic limit of the body, the stress is proportional to the strain produced.

Stress/ strain= a constant.

Using this formula, we get a constant is known as modulus of elasticity.

Table of Physical Constant

Introduction to physical constant:

A physical constant is one of the physical quantity which generally has a constant value for all mediums and all changes in the body or object and it is also assumed that the value of the physical constant is universally constant in nature as well as it is universally constant in time. The mathematical constant is different from the physical constant because in mathematics the constant has a fixed value but when we calculate it, then they do not undergoes any physical measurement of any object or system. I like to share this Equation for Average Speed with you all through my article.


Table of values of Physical Constants:

The table of physical constants is nothing but a table which has listed most of the physical constant which are used in study related to physics with their values and the respective units. The table of physical constant may contain the entire physical constant and a few constants depending on the requirements. The physical constants are also used with some of the prefixes. These prefixes must be used when defining the value of the physical constant in the table.
 

                                         Table showing some physical constants



Conclusion for the physical constants


Thus a table of physical constant can contain not only the constant names but it includes the symbol of physical constant and the value of the physical constant and the unit of the physical constant either it is SI or c.g.s. and last but not the least, the prefixes used with that physical constant. The physical constants can have the dimensions depending on the measurement taken by it and some of the physical constant exists in nature which does not have any dimension. That means, when the physical constant evolves in any system then there is a change that occurs in the system which is described in such a manner that the overall unit of the quantity is null.

Teach High School Physics

Introduction to teach high school physics:
High school is the stage when the student is in tenth standard. When the student is in tenth standard, it is the first time when the student is giving the boards examination first time. Therefore, this stage is very important regarding the studies. Let us discuss that what are the important and marks scoring topics in the physics so that the student gain the very good marks.

Teaching of high school physics

Let us discuss the important topics of the physics at the high school standard which are marks scoring. The very first important and the interesting topic is optics. It is the branch of physics in which we deals about the reflection, refraction, dispersion of light. This is the geometrical optics, which we study in the high school. As we see our image in the mirror it is the example of reflection. As we see the coin inside the water it is the example of refraction. As the light passes from the prism it splits in the seven colors, it is the example of dispersion. Microscopes, telescopes, human eye and the defects of the vision also study in the high school physics. The second main topics are the electricity. In the electricity we deals with the current, resistance, ohm’s law, resistivity, temperature dependence of the resistance, series and the parallel combination of the resistances. The amount of the electric energy consumed, power loss are the topics, which are read in the high school physics. The main part of the electricity is electromagnetism and the electromagnetic induction, in which we study about the principle and working of the generator, we study about the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, Lenz’s law, right hand rule, left hand rule and the screw rule. After that, we have to study about the sources of energy and the universe and solar system. These last topics are very easy as compared to the early ones. Having problem with The Shorter the Wavelength of Visible Light the keep reading my upcoming posts, i will try to help you.

Conclusion for teaching high school physics

Here from the above discussion we can conclude that the topics, which are read in the high school, are the base of the intermediate standard. So it is advised to study the high school physics with the great interest and in detail so there is no difficulty in the further studies.

Three Types of Deserts

Introduction to deserts:

A landscape that receives a very low amount of rainfall is called as Desert. Deserts are the areas with average annual precipitation of less than 250 millimeters (10 in) per year, or as areas where more water is lost by evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation. Desert is the place where plants can’t grow because of the low rainfall. Let us see some main classifications of desert. I like to share this Kinematics Problems with you all through my article.



Monsoon deserts

The word ‘Monsoon’ derived from the Arabic word ‘season’. Because of the drastic changes in the temperature between the continents and the oceans, Monsoons are developed. The southeast wind of the Indian Ocean leads heavy summer rains in India mostly in coastal regions. When the monsoon crosses India, it loses its moisture on coastal Aravalli Range. The Thar Desert of India and pakistan is the part of a monsoon desert region west.


Polar deserts:


Polar deserts are rich in rain fall and it has precipitation per year is less than 250 millimeters and a mean temperature is less than 10° C. In the world, polar deserts totally cover 5 million square kilometers. Sand dunes are not important features in these types of deserts while snow dunes are usually occurs only in low rain fall areas. Please express your views of this topic Permanent Magnet Definition by commenting on blog.


Hot and Dry deserts:


Hot deserts are usually present around the equator. Hot and dry deserts are warm around the year and very hot in the summer. And it has low humidity. It has little rain fall in winter. Very Small but heavy storms are occurs often. The Soil presents in this type of desert is too hard and rocky. Burrowing mammals, insects and reptiles are the main creatures living there. The Sandy Desert of Australia, the Sahara of North Africa (largest desert in the world) the Sonoran Desert of Arizona and northwestern Mexico fall under this category.

Issac Newtons Law

ISSAC NEWTON'S LAW

About Sir Isaac Newton’s:

Sir Isaac Newton’s was one of the greatest scientists and mathematicians that ever live. He was born in England on December 25th, 1643. He was born the similar year that Galileo died. He lived for 85 years.

Isaac Newton was raise by his grandmother. He attends Free Grammar School and then went on to Trinity College Cambridge. Newton work his way through college. While at college he becomes interested in math, physics, and astronomy. Newton usual both a bachelors and masters degree. I like to share this newton's law of cooling equation with you all through my article.



Newton’s First Law of motion:

An object at rest will stay at relax unless acted on by an unequal force. Objects in motion continue in motion with the same speed and in the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unequal force.

This law is often called "the law of inertia".

This means that there is a natural propensity of objects to keep on doing what they're doing. All objects stand firm changes in their state of motion. In the absence of an unequal force, an object in motion will

Keep this state of motion.


Newton’s Second Law of motion:


When a force acts on a mass the acceleration is produced.The greater the mass (of the object being accelerated) the larger the amount of force needed (to accelerate the object).

Everyone automatically knows the Second Law. Everyone knows that heavier objects need more force to move the same distance as lighter objects.

But, the Second Law of motion gives us an exact relationship between force, mass, and acceleration. It can be expressed as a mathematical equation:

F = M X A
or
FORCE = MASS times ACCELERATION


Newton’s Third Law of motion:


The Newton’s third law is, meant for every action there is an equal and opposite re-action.This means that for each force there is a reaction force that is equal in size, but opposite in direction. That is to say that at any time an object push another object it gets pushed back in the opposite direction equally hard.

Sir Isaac Newton Science

Sir Isaac Newton Science

Sir Isaac Newton was an English physicist, mathematician, and astronomer, who is widely considered as one of the most influential people in human history. His 1687 publication of the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (usually called the Principia) is considered to be among the most influential books in the history of science, laying the groundwork for most of classical mechanics. In this work, Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion which continues an important role in the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. Newton also built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a theory of colour based on the observation of a prism. He also formulated an empirical law of cooling and studied the speed of sound. I like to share this heat capacity equation with you all through my article.



Sir Isaac Newton's Science:


Newton investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that a prism could decompose white light into a spectrum of colours, and that a lens and a second prism could do the reverse.

His studies proved that coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects. Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected or scattered or transmitted, it stayed the same colour. Thus when objects interact with already-colored light, colour is produced. This is known as Newton's theory of colour. From this work, he concluded that the the dispersion of light into colours can be seen in lens of any refracting telescope. Newton’s contribution to the Law of Gravity is phenomenal and is regarded one of the major break-throughs in the world of Science.



Sir Isaac Newton’s Laws of Motion:


The famous three laws of motion are:

Sir Isaac Newton's First Law (also known as the Law of Inertia) states that an object at rest tends to stay at rest and that an object in uniform motion tends to stay in uniform motion unless acted upon by a net external force.

Sir Isaac Newton's Second Law states that an applied force on an object equals the rate of change of its momentum, with time.

Sir Isaac Newton's Third Law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

Meaning of Physical Science

The term physical science may often be misinterpreted to be a particular branch of science. It is actually a term used to group the different branches of natural science that study non living systems. In this context, physical science may seem different from biological science, which deals with the study of living systems. However, there is some confusion that the use of the term physical science creates, because while it deals with non living systems, some of these systems also deal with biological phenomena. There are different branches that come under the aegis of physical science. These include astronomy, physics, chemistry, geology, oceanography, hydrology, meteorology, and soil science. Physical science is based on the different theories and propositions made to explain the different aspects of behavior of nature. I like to share this The Electromagnetic Spectrum Includes with you all through my article.

There have been a number of reputed scientists who have worked in the sphere of physical science, both from ancient and modern times. Eminent people from the ancient times in this field include Aristotle, Archimedes, Robert Boyle, Francis Bacon, Galileo, Nicolaus Copernicus, Thales of Miletus, etc. From the modern times, scientists who worked in this field include Marie Curie, Albert Einstein, James Hutton, Isaac Newton, Linus Pauling, etc.
Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise of gathering knowledge about the world and organizing and condensing that knowledge into testable laws and theories.As knowledge has increased, some methods have proved more reliable than others, and today the scientific method is the standard for science. It includes the use of careful observation, experiment, measurement, mathematics, and replication — to be considered a science, a body of knowledge must stand up to repeated testing by independent observers. The use of the scientific method to make new discoveries is called scientific research, and the people who carry out this research are called scientists.This article focuses on science in the more restricted sense, what is sometimes called experimental science. Applied science, or engineering, is the practical application of scientific knowledge. Having problem with Doppler Shift Formula keep reading my upcoming posts, i will try to help you.


A scientific hypothesis is an educated guess about the nature of the universe, a scientific theory is a hypothesis which has been confirmed by repeated observation and measurement. Scientific theories are usually given mathematical form, and are always subject to refutation if future experiments contradict them.

Magnetic Field Moment

Introduction to magnetic field moment:

Magnetic moment is a determination of its propensity to align through magnetic field. Equally the magnetic moment also magnetic field might be measured towards vectors which contains a magnitude and the direction. The way of the magnetic moment point as of the south within the way of north pole of a magnet. Magnetic field created through a magnet is relative toward its magnetic moment. I like to share this Effective Magnetic Moment with you all through my article.


Magnetic field moment


For instance, circles of electric current, an electron, a tavern magnet, also planet all contain magnetic moments.

Further accurately, the word magnetic moment usually refers toward a system magnetic dipole moment, which it is; create the initial word within the multiple extension of a common magnetic field. Dipole part of object's magnetic field be symmetric on the way of magnetic dipole moment, also reduce like the inverse dice of the distance as of the object.

Magnetic moment of solenoids:

Magnetic moment of a number of turn solenoid is resolute when the vector total of the instant of entity rotates. In the case of the same rotation, it is equivalent just towards the entity that turns instant multiply through the whole number of rotation within the solenoid. Formerly, the value of sum magnetic instant is established, it will be used to create the distant field also to store energy within the outside field and within the similar approach like used for the single-turn circle. Having problem with Centripetal Acceleration Equation keep reading my upcoming posts, i will try to help you.

Type of magnetic sources:

Motion of electric charges.
Intrinsic magnetism of elementary particles.

Magnetic dipole moment


Since the term used for the torque lying on an existing circle, the uniqueness of the existing loop be summarized within its magnetic instant.

`mu=IA`

Magnetic instant be able to be measured toward exist a vector quantity through the way vertical to the current circle within the right-hand-rule way.

Torque is known through,

`tau=muxB`

When we see within the geometry of an existing circle, this torque be inclined to line up the magnetic instant through the magnetic field B, thus this correspond to its lowly energy configuration. Potential energy related through the magnetic moment can be written as,

`U(theta)=-mu.B`

Thus, the distinction within energy among aligned also be anti-aligned,

`DeltaU=2muB`

Space Wave Propagation

Introduction:

Generally the space wave propagation has the following components:

Direct wave
Reflected wave
Direct wave is getting from the transmitting antenna and the reflected wave is getting from the surface of the earth.

Space waves are the waves which are used for satellite communication and line of sight path. The waves have frequencies up to 40 MHz provides essential communication and limited the line of sight paths. Having problem with vector equation keep reading my upcoming posts, i will try to help you.


propagation of space waves:


The output signal which is received from the receiving antenna depends on the phase difference among the direct and reflected rays. The earth cause the reflection of phase difference of 1800. If the differences between the antennas are not too long then the direct and reflected waves which are arriving at the receiving antenna oppose the phase which cancelling each other.

By raising the heights of antennas space waves becomes more effective. The transmission of direct waves is not straight always. It may be refracted on the earth’s surface. Is this topic Regions of the Electromagnetic Spectrum hard for you? Watch out for my coming posts.


Antenna for space propagation:


Antenna:

One of the important components of the space wave propagation is antenna. It is located at both sides of the transmitter and receiver.

The transmitting antenna radiates the electromagnetic waves and the receiver antenna gets the transmitted signal from transmitting antenna. The antenna is acts as a conversion device.

Process of transmitting antenna: Converts the electrical energy into electromagnetic energy

Process of receiving antenna: Converts the electromagnetic energy into electrical energy

Normally the length of the antenna is `lambda/4` . Here the wavelength of radio frequency is `lambda`.


Television signals:


Television signal propagation:

The frequency range of Television signal is from 88MHz to 960 MHz.

Possibilities for transmitting TV signals:

With the help of satellite for communication which can reflect the signals back to earth
With the help of very height antennas
Coverage range: The TV signals can cover the range of d=`root()(2R_eh)` where h is the height of antenna

This covering range of TV signals is increased by increase in height of antenna.

Uniform Motion

Introduction to Uniform Motion

A motion is said to be uniform if the particle covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, however  small these intervals of time may be , always in the same direction. Strictly speaking , no motion is uniform.

When a particle has uniform motion, neither the magnitude nor the direction of velocity changes , so the velocity is constant in uniform motion and is equal to Instantaneous velocity of the particle. I like to share this equation for frequency with you all through my article.

So uniform is a relative concept. If an object A is in uniform motion relative to another object B, then from B's view there appear to be no force applied to A; i.e. it appears to be neither accelerating nor decelerating, nor changing directions or moving in a curve. The same should apply vice versa.

when a particle possess uniform motion, it's velocity- time graph is a straight line parallel to time axis.If the velocity of the particle is taken as positive, the straight line is taken above the time axis and if it is negative, then the V-t graph will be a straight line below the time axis


Uniform Motion : Velocity- time Graph


The Velocity- time graph for uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion is straight line sloping upwards.

The velocity- time graph for a uniformly retarded motion is a straight line sloping downwards.

Let us consider a particle moving with constant acceleration .If U and V be the velocities at time t1 and t2  respectively, then

`V= U+at` gives the equation connecting initial velocity, final velocity, acceleration and time. I have recently faced lot of problem while learning Effects of Radiation on Humans, But thank to online resources of math which helped me to learn myself easily on net.


Uniform Motion : V-t Graphs and Acceleration


The Velocity- time graph for the uniformly accelerated motion of a particle is a straight line sloping upwards.

The area under the V-t graph gives the distance covered by the particle.It is calculated by the equation `V^2= U^2+2ad`

so here distance is as area under Velocity- time graph

The slope of the V- t graph for uniformly accelerated motion gives the acceleration.

Laser Cutting Process

Introduction to laser cutting process:

Laser which stands for Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.When electromagnetic radiation or some times visible radiations  released by the stimulated emission then this is known as Lasers.Electrons present in the elements can change their state in order to attain stability.When any energy is supplied then electrons are excited to higher states,but at the higher states these are not so stable so it jumps down by releasing some energy.These energy comes under certain range .It can be in the electromagnetic range,visible range or may be in some other range of the spectrum.Laser is a monochromatic and short wavelength rays.These rays have high frequency. Is this topic Definition Kinetic Energy hard for you? Watch out for my coming posts.

Laser beams are very useful in many fields.Laser cutting is also a field where lasers are used to cut the materials.Lasers are very high power beams when it is subjected to the materials then material melts,vaporises or burns,or it is blown away by the high pressure beams.As compared to the mechanical cutting this process of cutting is very effective and accurate.Some times materials are very hard to cut by using normal mechanical methods,so in these cases laser cutting  helps and it makes the cutting very easy and simple.

Types of Laser

There are mainly three types of laser cutting device is used depending upon the material used for the production of lasers.These materials are.

1)Carbon Dioxide

2)Neodymium

3)Neodymium yttrium Aluminium garnet

These different lasers are used in different applications.These are used for cutting,trimming,scribing.engraving etc.To produce the laser beams the lasing materials are stimulated ,then the generated beam is reflected so many times internally by using mirrors till it gains high  energy  to come out as monochromatic beams.



Different Methods of Cutting by Laser

By using laser cutting of material can be done in various ways.The high energy of the beam is mainly used to cut the material.Some of the methods are described below

By vaporising-in this method the material is heated to its boiling point to obtain a gap.

Thermal stress cutting-This method is used for the brittle material .When Brittle material is subjected to high heat then it results in crack.

melt and blow-In this method first the material is melt and then it is blown by high pressure beams.

By cold cutting

Scribing

General Electric Refrigerator

Introduction to General Electrical Refrigerators:
A refrigerator is a cooling apparatus. The common name which we use is Fridge. Cooling apparatus is in the sense it is used to cool the products. Mainly it is used for the storage of food devices. This devise is used to reduce the rate of spoilage of food stuffs. The refrigerator keeps a temperature a few degrees above the freezing point of water. It is also called as Freezer. Having problem with What is Electric Charge keep reading my upcoming posts, i will try to help you.

Types of Refrigerators:

1. Absorption Refrigerator – In this quite running is required. They don’t have bulky mechanism.

2. Compressor Refrigerator – They make noticeable noise.

3. Solar Refrigerator – They are designed to reduce electrical consumption .these have advantages that they do not use refrigerants that are harmful to environment.

Non food use: They are used in laboratories, for storing samples analysis, storing film stock and morgues.

Freezer: Freezer units are used in households and in industry and commerce. Domestic freezers are generally upright units resembling refrigerators.

4. Magnetic Refrigerator – These Refrigerators work on the magneto caloric effect. The cooling effect is triggered by placing a metal alloy in a magnetic field.

Temperatures zones and rating:

Some refrigerator are having are having four zones to store different types of food.

1.  -18^0 C (-0^0 F) (freezer)

2.  0^0C (32^0 F) (meats)

3.  5^0 C (41^0 F) (refrigerator)

4.  10^0 C (50^0 F) (vegetables)

The capacity of a refrigerator is measured in either litters or cubic feet.  Typically the volume of a combined fridge-freezer.is split to 100 liters (3.53 cubic feet) for the freezer and 140 liters (4.94 cubic feet) for the refrigerator, the values are highly variable. Please express your views of this topic Temperature Formula by commenting on blog.

Features of General Electric Refrigerator:

The newer refrigerators m y includes:

A powerful failure warning

Chilled water and ice available from an indoor stations o the door need not be opened.

Automatic defrosting.

Automatic cooling at the steam

Inductors in Ac Circuits

Description of an inductor:

An inductor in a AC circuit is a component that has the property of inductance. Inductors have very wide applications. The inductance of an inductor makes the current to lag the voltage in an AC circuit and this phenomenon is used in certain applications. The inductors are also called reactors, chokes and coils depending upon the application. I like to share this formula celsius to fahrenheit with you all through my article.

The inductor is basically a closely wound coil around a material of high permeability (magnetically susceptible).

Let us study what exactly are the functions of inductors in AC circuits.

Concept of Inductance by an Inductor in Ac Circuits:

The above diagram shows a AC circuit connected to an inductor. When an AC voltage is applied to an inductor, the rate of change in current passes through that induces an emf, as per Faraday’s law. This emf, as per Lenz’s law opposes the change in current.

The inductance of an inductor is denoted by L and its unit is Henry, named after the American scientist who discovered electromagnetic induction at the same time with the great scientist Michael Faraday from England.

One unit of Hendry produces an emf of 1 volt for a change in current of 1 ampere per second. Understanding An Electric Current is Measured in Units of is always challenging for me but thanks to all math help websites to help me out.

Inductors in Ac Circuits:

Inductors in AC circuits, as explained earlier opposes the change in current. In a way it can be termed as a magnetic resistor. Like resistors, the equivalent inductance of various inductors is the sum of the values of all the inductance values when they are connected in series. That is,

L = L1 + L2 + L3 ….. + Ln

Similar to the case of resistors, in parallel operation,

(1/L) = (1/L1)+ (1/L2) + (1/L3) ….. + (1/Ln)

Like resistors in resistive circuits, the inductors in AC circuits converts the electrical energy but stores that in the magnetic field.  The energy stored is given by,

E = (1/2) LI^2

Right Angle Mirror

Introduction to right angle mirror:

Any smooth polished surface, which can return the rays of light into the same medium, is called mirror. Looking glass is the best example of mirror. Any highly polished metal surface also acts as a mirror. Still water or oil have a smooth surface and hence acts like a mirror. Even highly polished furniture or the utensils acts like a mirror. Here we discuss the right angle mirror. I like to share this equation for converting celsius to fahrenheit with you all through my article.

Right Angle Mirror

If the two mirrors are arranged so that they inclined at an angle of 90° to each other are called the right angle mirrors. Mirrors are based on the optical phenomenon called reflection. When a ray of light traveling from one optical medium to another optical medium it bounces back from the interface with the change of the angle is called reflection. We can see our image in the looking glass due to the phenomenon of reflection of the light falling on us. Now let us consider that the two plane mirrors M and N are placed at right angle to each other as shown in the diagram.

Let them intersects at point O. Now an object is placed between the mirrors. We get three images of this object. As we know that the number of images formed by the mirrors which are inclined at an angle `theta`° is given by 360 / `theta` - 1 (if 360 / `theta`  is an even number). So, we get the three images formed by this system of the mirrors.
.

Conclusion for the Right Angle Mirrors

Here we conclude that the images formed by the system of the right angle mirrors is virtual that means we cannot get these images on the screen. The size of the images is same as that the object. The image formed is laterally inverted. The system of the right angle mirrors are used in the solar cookers, kaleidoscopes, periscopes etc. Generally, we use two plane mirrors to make the right angle mirror system but in the different condition and for the several purposes we use the combination of the plane and spherical mirrors.