4 Simple Machines

Introduction to Simple Machines:

A simple machine is nothing but a kind of mechanical device which is used to change either the direction of the applied force or the magnitude of the given force. Generally the simple machines are defined in the simple way as the simplest mechanisms which are used to get the mechanical advantage, which is also called the leverage of the applied force in the specific and simpler manner. A simple machine uses the applied force for the work which is being done by the simple machine and the work is done against the single load force. If one ignores the losses that occur due to the friction then the work done by the applied force is equal to the work done on the given load. The simple machines can be used in order to increase the amount of the output force which is done at the cost of the decrease in the distance covered or moved by the load and this decrease is proportional to the increase in the output force.



Types of Simple Machines:


Usually there are six classical simple machines which are given below:

Lever

Wheel and axle

Pulley

Inclined plane

Wedge

Screw


4 Simple Machines


Pulley: The pulley is a simple machine used for the easy holding of the heavy weights. A pulley consists of the grooved wheels and the rope which is used to raise or lower or move any load.

Lever: A lever is nothing but a piece of the wood or the stiff bar of wood which is at rest on a support and the support is called the fulcrum and hence on that support it is used to lift or move the loads.

Wedge: A wedge is the object which has at least one side which is slanting and the same is ending in a sharp edge and this sharp edge is used to cut the materials apart.

Wheel & Axle: A wheel which is there with a rod which is called the axle and the compound system made the simple machine wheel and axle and in this simple machine the load is lifted or moved through the center of the machine.

Different Types of Energy

Introduction to different types of energy:

It is often said that a person A is more energetic than a person B. The meaning of this statement is that a person A can do more work than the person B. Person A is said to have more energy. Energy is needed to do some work. After doing a lot of work, one feels tired and need more energy. Thus, anything which is capable of doing work has energy. The capacity of doing work by a body or an object is known as the energy of  the body or the object.I like to share this Rotational Kinetic Energy Formula with you all through my article.

Energy is defined as the ability or the capacity to do work.

Units of Energy:

Energy can be measured in Joules. Joule is named after an English physicist named James Prescott Joule who lived from 1818 to 1889. He discovered that heat is a type of energy. One joule is the amount of energy needed to lift 1 pound about 9 inches.


Types of Energy:


Kinetic Energy- The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is known as kinetic energy. For example a moving bus, Moving bullets, flowing water etc.

Potential Energy-  The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position or shape, is known as Potential energy. For example water stored in a dam , a stone lying on the top of hill, a wound spring of a watch, a stretched bow and arrow  etc.

Mechanical Energy- The sum of kinetic energy and potential energy of a body is known as mechanical energy.



Types of Energy:


Heat or Thermal Energy- The energy possessed by a body due to its temperature is known as heat energy. For example energy of hot water, energy of hot air etc.

Chemical Energy- The energy released in chemical reactions is known as chemical energy.
Sound Energy- The energy of a vibrating object producing sound is known as Sound energy.
Electrical Energy- The energy of moving electrons in a conductor connected with a battery is known as electrical energy.
Nuclear Energy- The energy released when two nuclei of light elements combine with each other to form a heavy nucleus or when a heavy nucleus breaks into two light nuclei is known as nuclear energy.

Solar Energy- The energy radiated by the sun is known as Solar energy

White Light Spectrum

Introduction to white light spectrum:

White light spectrum is the visible light waves and they are electromagnetic waves that can be seen.  The white light is not white. It consists  of different colors of different wave length.  White light is a mixture of  of Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, and Violet.   These form a part of the electromagnetic spectrum.  Electromagnetic spectrum is a bunch of radiations and visible light is a part of this spectrum.   These Electromagnetic radiations are  radio waves, Microwaves,  infrared, visible light rays, Ultraviolet, x-rays and gamma rays.


Description about White light spectrum


The EM (Electromagnetic spectrum) is a bunch of radiations.  Radiation is an energy that travels and spreads. It can be visible white light of radio waves.

Newton gave his findings that when white light is passed through a transparent medium like glass this created a spread of colored light rays from r  Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, and Violet.  These are the colors  of the rainbow. This ordered separated of colored light is known as the spectrum. The white light spectrum also consists of UV light but that cannot be seen. When white light passes  through a prism, the white light is split  into the colors of the visible light spectrum. Water vapor in the atmosphere can also split the white light of different wave lengths  creating a rainbow.   Red color has longer wave length and violet has the shortest wave length.  There lies continuous range  of spectrum of wavelengths between red and violet.



White light spectrum passing through prism


The white light spectrum is the section of electromagnetic radiation spectrum that is visible to be human eye.  It ranges in wavelength from approximately 400 Newton meter (4 x 10-7 m) to 700 Newton meter  (7 x 10-7 m). It is also known as the optical spectrum of light.

When white light is passed through a prism it causes the wavelengths to bend at slightly different angles. That is due to refraction. This bending of light results in splitting of white light into visible colors. This cause the rainbow. The airborne  particles acts as the refractive medium which causes the splitting of white light into different angles.

Static Electricity Materials

Static Electricity

Static electricity is the accumulation of excess charge on the surface of an insulator, that is, a material that does not conduct electricity.

Why does the charge accumulate?

An atom is made of a positively charged nucleus (made of protons and neutrons) surrounded by several shells of electrons which are negatively charged. Objects that we see everyday are made of electrically neutral atoms or molecules. This means that the number of positive charges and negative charges are equal. However, when two electrically neutral materials are in contact, the electrons may move from one material to another. This means that one material gets an excess of negative charge, while the other one gets an excess of positive charge. If you separate the materials after the electrons have moved, there will be a charge imbalance in the materials.

In a conducting material, the charges are immediately conducted away, and the charge does not accumulate. So, the phenomenon of static charge accumulation or static electricity can be seen only in insulators or non-conductors.


Experiments of static electricity materials:


You can see how static charges accumulate by doing these simple experiments.

Experiment 1:

Rub a balloon vigorously on a sweater.  The rubbing motion increases the area of contact between the two surfaces, making it easier for charges to migrate. The balloon gets negatively charged and the jumper aquires a positive charge. Now, if you bring the balloon close to your hair, your hair will cling to the balloon. This is known as static cling.

Experiment 2:

Use a plastic comb to comb through your hair about ten times. Now, turn on a tap so that you have a steady water flow. The flow should not be very fast. If you bring the comb near the stream of water without touching it, the water will bend towards the comb. This is because the charges on the comb pull on the uncharged water.

Removing static electricity:

Static electricity can be removed by bringing the material into contact with a conductor, or with a region that has an excess charge that is opposite to the material. This causes the charge to neutralize, resulting in a static 'shock.' In regions of high humidity, the air itself will conduct away the static charges.

Moon Distance From Earth

Introduction to moon distance from earth:

To begin with moon's distance from earth, let us know that Moon is a natural satellite of our earth. In our solar system, there are nine planets and out of which seven planets have their moons. Moons are also the part of the solar system. Actually, the name moon means the artificial satellite. That is the name of the family not the name of a particular natural satellite. Because earth has only one natural satellite, so that we can say it moon, but the planets has so many artificial natural satellites so there is the particulars name given to all the moons. Here we discuss about the distance of the moon from our earth.


Moon's distance from earth:


A solid heavenly body that revolves around a planet is called its natural satellite or the moon. Moon is the natural satellite of the earth, which revolves around the earth. Natural satellites, i.e., moons do not have their own light. They reflect the sun light falling on them and appear shining. The size of the moon of the earth is one fourth of the size of the earth. The diameter of the moon is 3480 Km. The mass of the moon is one eighth of the mass of the earth, i.e., 7.35 × 1022 kg.  The distance of the moon from the earth’s surface is 3.8 × 105 km. The surface of the moon is hard and loose soil, craters, mountainous. There is no atmosphere on the moon. The temperature of the moon at the daytime is 110°C and at the nighttime is -150°C.

Conclusion of moon distance from the earth:


Moon completes one revolution around the earth in 27.3 days. As the temperature is too high and too low on the moon, the survival of life is not possible. The conditions of the survival of life are moderate temperature, existence of water, oxygen rich atmosphere and the presence of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen elements and the main important thing is protective layer, which can protect the moon groom the ultra violet radiations of the sun. All these conditions are not full fill on the surface of the moon so the life cannot exist on the moon.

Tides and Waves Energy

Introduction to tidal renewable energy:

There are two types of energy in nature i.e. renewable and non-renewable. Non renewable sources of energy includes those sources of energy which derived from fossil-fuels. It includes, petroleum, natural gas, diesel, etc.  Renewable sources includes those sources which are gift of nature and available free of cost to us. Such as Hydro energy, solar energy, Wind energy, Thermal energy. Geo-thermal energy etc. One of them is "Tidal energy".  Tidal energy refers to the form of the energy which is derived from the motion of  tides waves. Tides are supposed to be generated in sea by the gravitational pull of the moon.  When Tides flow at certain pace, it acquires tremendous energy due to its motion i.e. kinetic energy. Mainly, it is Kinetic energy which causes it to do work.


Cause of energy in tides:

Energy in Tide is stored in the form of pressure. When water molecule is flowing,  the electrons start to move at high speed. This moving molecule of water takes to the air because of its quickly moving electrons. This moving water molecule keeps away from other water molecules. This distance gives rise to pressure. When this process of moving water occurs at large scale, enormous amount of pressure is built. When this pressure is released, energy can be generated. This energy is known as Tidal Energy



Uses and limitations of tidal energy:


Tidal energy has industrial, agricultural and house hold uses. This energy is used in industries for power generation. The transfer of energy from the tides to the object causes it to move.Tidal energy produced is used to rotate the turbine, which in turns rotates shaft of the generator.  Thus, electricity is produced. However there are certain limitations regarding the uses of Tidal energy. It can be used only under certain conditions and at certain places where there is ample scope of its availability. The geographical location of the place is a varying factor for the use of tidal energy. The locations near the sea are good sites for harnessing the tidal energy. One of the major limitation is that it is not available 24 hours a day.

What is Wind Power Energy

Introduction on what is wind power energy:

Wind energy is more upgrading energy. It was less known to people in ancient times, sailor used wind energy to sail boat then it was used for much more purpose. Wind energy was converted into mechanical energy and that lead many applications. The most beneficial was used in generation of electrical energy mostly in hilly areas. This led to generation of high power of energy and was transmitted using cables.



Wind Power Systems


The wind turbines play a vital role in conversion of wind energy into mechanical energy and thus help in generating electrical energy. Wind turbines are attached with blades and ensured it can withstand high velocity of wind, as wind hits the blades it rotates which in turn rotated the motor of the generator and helps in generating electricity. This electricity is transmitted usually using wires to towers and mostly as three phase alternating current. The rotational speed of turbine cannot be predicted and so do the voltage and frequency varies and it may not be at constant times. Most hilly stations are located with turbines especially with three blades with capacity to up hold the high velocities of wind and produce electricity.

The output is rectified to direct current (DC) to charge batteries or to be inverted for grid connection.

Wind turbines can be classified into two groups: vertical-axis design and the horizontal-axis variety. A horizontal-axis wind turbine normally has two or three blades. These three-bladed are operated with blades facing the wind.


Wind Turbine


One can see wind turbines situated in almost all hill stations and its rotation depends  on the speed of wind. As winds velocity increases so the acceleration of blades increase and rotates at a high rotational speed. The rotation is not constant even during rain the turbines rotate at better speed and which activated the generator at the time and is transferred using wire cables. The main advantage is that it doesn’t produce any waste or effect the environment in either ways. Sometimes a drastic increase in the wind will increase the turbine speed numerously and thus the energy consumption. In hilly station this is the main source of energy and comparatively installing a small turbine is cost effective.

Angular Displacement

We know that linear displacement of a body is the difference between final position and initial position of a body. When there is a rotational motion then the displacement is called angular displacement and is different from linear displacement. I like to share this formula for angular velocity with you all through my article.

Let us understand What is Angular Displacement?
It is the angle through which a body has been rotated about certain axis. In a rotational motion the velocity of the particle keeps on changing at every instant.
So rotational motion is dealt I a different way. In this case the body is considered as rigid instead of particle as the distance between all the particle remains constant throughout the motion.

Observe the diagram given above. The object starts moving from its initial position to point A. In such a case the distance of the object remains constant from origin throughout its motion.
The coordinates of the object is then defined in polar coordinate system as (r, Ө) where r is its distance from origin and Ө is the angle it has covered from x axis. Ө keeps on varying and r remains constant during the motion. As particle rotates along the circle it covers an arc on the circle which is given by:
S = r.Ө, here s is the arc covered by the object; r and Ө are radius and angle covered by the object.
Angular displacement is Ө and Angular Displacement Units are radians and is given by the following relation:
Ө = S/r
Example: if a body rotates an angle of 180 degree on a circle of radius r then angular-displacement is given by the distance travelled n circumference which is πr divided by the radius such as:
Ө = πr/r = π
If the object starts motion on the circle at some point other than on x axis which makes an angle Ө1 with x axis and then moves to other point which makes an angle Ө2 with x axis then angular displacement is given by the final angle minus initial angle i.e. Ө = Ө2 – Ө1.


Angular Velocity and Acceleration are other rotational terms. During the rotation even if the particle moves with a constant rotational speed the particle accelerates. This is due to the fact that it always changes its direction of movement. Angular acceleration is given as rate of change of angular velocity and is denoted by . Its unit is radians.second2.
= d^2Ө/dt^2
= dω/dt. Here ω is angular velocity. It is the rate of change of angular position. Its unit is radians/second.
ω= dӨ/dt.

Diffraction Waves

Let us define diffraction first. As we know diffraction is the bending of the waves when they collide with an obstacle. It is also possible when the waves pass through the slit etc. Now the point to think here is something our discussion will be about. Imagine there is a wall between you and your friend. The wall has a little hole on the top. Your friend calls you from the other side. You will be able to hear his voice that is for sure. How do you think this is possible? This is because of the bending of the sound waves and their spherical passage through the hole in the wall. So, waves that we referred to in the above definition will include both sound and light waves.

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Diffraction sound is an interesting phenomenon in itself. Imagine a sound proof room. It is sound-proof; this means that it does not have any small or big openings which would have otherwise led to this phenomenon.
While discussing sound diffraction we should also take in account the wavelength of the sound wave. When the order of wavelength of the obstacle or its size is the order of the wavelength of the sound waves which pass through it then we will be able to experience the phenomena. This is because in other cases the effect will be negligible.

As already mentioned the diffraction of a wave may include both light waves as well as sound waves. In fact the sensation of vision is mostly possible because of this phenomenon. Sound waves also have the ability of reflection. This combined gives rise to many interesting phenomena.

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Let us also discuss a few examples of this.
When sitting in a auditorium; even when it is curved or spherical we are able to hear the sound due to its bending at collision with various objects. Also consider a big building and someone playing music at one end and people standing at other side of the building. Sound obviously exhibits the phenomenon of diffraction in this case. Drums playing in a marriage and you being able to hear it inside your house are another example of the same combined with reflection of sound waves.

Even take an example of sound barriers build to protect the tenants from traffic noise. But then also people are able to hear the noise in a lower amount. This is also because of the same phenomenon.

Potential Energy Facts

Introduction to facts related to potential energy:

Object stores energy by the effect of its position and this energy is known as potential energy. Suppose, when a demolition machine lifts its heavy ball, it stores energy in it. This energy stored because of position is known as potential energy. Similarly, energy is stored in a drawn bow because of its position. When in equilibrium (i.e., when not drawn), no energy is stored in the bow. However, when its position is altered it stores energy by the virtue of changing position. This stored energy is potential energy. The 19th century Scottish engineer and physicist William Rankine coined the term potential energy. Its SI unit is Joules denoted by ‘J’.


Overview on Potential Energy


Energy that is stored within a system is potential energy. Potential energy exists when an object is tending to pull towards some lower energy position. This force is known as restoring force. Suppose, a spring is stretched to the left then a force will work to the right to bring it back in the original position. For this energy is required. The energy required in restoring the spring is stored in metal. Thus, as the law of conservation of energy state, energy cannot disappear and hence, stored as potential energy.

General rule

PE = mgh

Change in the potential energy is denoted by ?U. Commonly used notations for potential energy are U, Ep, and PE.

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Some other types of potential energies

Gravitational Potential energy

PE = mgh

m = mass, g = gravity (9.8m/s), h = height

Elastic Potential energy

PEelastic = 0.5kx^2

k = spring constant, x = expansion or compression amount

Chemical potential energy – Energy related to the molecular or atomic structural arrangement is known as Chemical potential energy.

Electrical potential energy – Potential energy in an object due to its electric charge is electrical potential energy. It is divided into two parts i.e. Electrostatic Potential energy and Electrodynamics’ potential energy.

Nuclear potential energy – Potential energy inside an atomic nucleus is known as nuclear potential energy.

Motion in One Dimension

Introduction to motion in one dimension:-
When a object moves in a straight line, motion of the object is called as motion in one dimension.

This type of motion is also called as linear motion. For example, 1. A ball moves on a level road in straight Line,  2. A ball is thrown straight up, 3. Free falling bodies. One dimensional motion is the simplest motion in physics.

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Some definitions orf motion in one dimensions:


Displacement-   the shortest distance between initial and final point is called as displacement.

Distance- the length of path travelled by object between initial and final points is called as distance travelled by object.

Speed – speed of object can be calculated by eq.  -         Speed = distance/ time.

Average speed-          average speed is the average of all speeds attained by object during trip.

It can be calculated by eq. -           average speed = total distance travelled / total time taken

Velocity-   velocity of the object can be calculated by eq.-    velocity = displacement / time

General Units of velocity is meter/second, kilometer/hour, miles/ hour. SI unit of velocity is meter/second.

Average velocity- average velocity of object can be calculated by eq. –

Average velocity = change in position / time interval

Acceleration- acceleration of the object is the rate of change of velocity. It can be calculated by eq.-

Acceleration = change in velocity / time interval

Uniform motion- when speed of the object is constant throughout one dimensional motion. Motion is called as uniform motion.

Non-uniform motion- speed in non-uniform motions is not constant and these motions have acceleration.

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Distance- time graph : Motion in one dimension


Distance- time graph in one dimensional motion is drawn between distance travelled and time. For uniform one dimensional motion this graph shows a straight line. Slope of line represents the velocity of motion. For non-uniform one dimensional motion, this graph shows a curve.

Integrated Data Communication

Introduction to Integrated Data Communication:

Integrated Data Communications  (IDC) is a Seattle-based integrator of wireless voice and data solutions for mobile devices and computers. IDC enable us to send and receive high-value data ubiquitously -- regardless of technology, device or network.

It is a technology which enables the transmission of data over digital wireless voice channels while not requiring changes to the existing network infrastructure.

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Concept of integrated data communication


Integrated data communications (IDC) is an application of telecommunications technology to solve the problem of transmitting data, especially to and from, or between computers. Generally, it is said that using integrated data communications one computer can “talk" with another computer.

IDC is  intelligent wireless communications that integrate voice and data to support location-based and other high-value data applications and services on any wireless network or air interface. In present days this is easily used to communicate between two mobile devices.

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Example of Integrated data communication:


As we have shown above, the communication is done using a wireless network thus we easily say that the wireless data communication in the integrated mode is one of the examples of integrated data communication.

Wireless SCADA systems are one of the good examples of this communication. These systems usually operate over wide geographical area; country, province, large city, district, etc. These systems shall preferable operate as stand alone and well "isolated" from other communication networks, which may be vulnerable to overloading, interference,  interruption of service, security attacks, fraud, etc. The data communication rates of SCADA is in the range of 1200 bps up to 9600 bps.

How to Read Electrical Circuits

Introduction on how to read electrical circuits:

Electrical circuits are the combinations of different electrical appliances connected in a particular manner. Electrical circuit is the symbolic representation of the circuit, which helps us to define all the parameters of the circuits such as voltage, current, resistance, capacitance and inductance, etc. It is the diagram in which all the electrical appliances connect. It is the very short way to create the circuit.

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Concept of reading electrical circuits:


In the electrical circuit, first find the values that is given in the standard units. Such as resistance in micro ohms so convert it in ohms, current in milli-ampere then convert it in ampere, voltage in milli-volt so convert it in volt, capacitance in micro farad so convert it in farad. Now first find the equivalent resistance of the circuit.

We have two formulae for finding the equivalent resistance one for series combination of resistances and other for the parallel resistances.

For the series combination of resistances Rs = R1 + R2 + R3

For the parallel combination of resistances `Rp = 1/ (R1) + 1/(R2) + 1/(R3)`

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Procedure for reading electric circuit:


To read any electrical circuit first find that which of the resistances are in series combination and which are in the parallel combination. Now apply the formula for finding the equivalent resistance. Now we use ohm’s law to find the respective current.

First, always try to find the current in the whole circuit and then try to find the potential difference across the series resistance. As we know the potential difference of the series resistance now try to find the potential difference of the parallel resistance. Now again using the Ohm’s law find the current in the remaining resistances. As we know the current and the potential of each resistance, we completely read the electrical circuit. If the circuit containing capacitors then we use the same procedure.  But the formula to find the equivalent capacitor is different from the resistors.

For the series combination of capacitors  `1/C_S = 1/(C1) + 1/ (C2) + 1/(C3)`

For the parallel combination of capacitors Cp = C1 + C2 + C3  same procedure is to followed to completely read the electrical circuit.

Two Types of Reflection

Introduction to Two types of Reflection

When light traveling in one medium strikes a boundary leading to another medium, a part of incident light is through back into the original medium one. This phenomenon is called reflection of light.

Reflection is of two types:

Regular reflection
Irregular reflection or diffuse reflection

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The Two types of reflection


1.    Regular reflection: When the reflection surface is smooth and well polished, the parallel rays falling on it are reflected parallel to another one, the reflected light goes in one particular direction. This is regular reflection. The smooth and well polished surface is called mirror. Silver metal is one of the best reflectors of light. So, ordinary mirrors are made by depositing a thin layer of silver metal on one side of a plane glass sheet. The silver layer is protected by a coat of red paint. The reflection of light in a mirror takes place at the silver surface. A plane mirror is represented by a straight line, with a number of short, oblique lines showing back of the mirror.

2.    Irregular reflection: When the reflecting surface is rough, the parallel rays falling on it are reflected in different direction. Such a reflection is known as diffuse reflection or irregular reflection or even scattering of light. In this, a surface will behave as a smooth surface as long as the surfaces variations are small as compared to the wavelength of incident light. As wavelength of visible light is very small therefore, every surface acts as a rough surface and scattering of light or irregular reflection is more common. For example, any object in a room can be seen from all the parts of the room. This is because surface of the object is rough and it scatters or reflects light in all directions.

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Two types of Reflection : Summary


Reflection of light is the phenomenon of bouncing back of light in the same medium on striking the surface of any object.

Energy Bands in Silicon

Introduction to Energy Bands in silicon:

Before we start with energy bands in silicon,  let us know about energy bands.The energy band of any solid is a structure which describes the allowed and the forbidden values of energies for that solid. The energy band is a function of the diffracted quantum mechanical electron waves which are present in a periodic crystal lattice which have a specific crystal system and specific Bravais lattice.

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Reason behind formation of energy band in elements like silicon


As the electrons of any single isolated atom occupy several atomic orbitals which are in the form of set energy level that are discrete. If a molecule is formed by several atoms, which are brought together, the atomic levels of the atoms split and form a coupled oscillation. Similarly if a large number of atoms of the order of 1020 or more are brought together in the form of a solid, the atomic levels are very large in number and the energy difference between the two energy levels is very small which give rise to a continuous band of the energy levels.


Description of Energy Bands in Silicon


The Fermi level is one of the important levels in the energy band of any material because it determines the nature of the material i.e. the material is conductor or insulator or the semiconductor. The silicon is a semiconductor material and for it the Fermi level is exists essentially in the halfway between the valence and the conduction bands of the silicon. In silicon at 0 K temperatures there is no conduction of electron but at finite temperatures the electrons moves from valence band to the conduction band and the number of electrons which reaches the conduction band contributes for the flow of current in silicon and this current can be modeled by Fermi function.

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Conclusion for Energy Bands in Silicon


There are some intervals in the energy bands which contain no levels or the orbitals these interval forms the energy band gaps. The energy bands of any material determine several characteristics like the electronic and the optical properties of the material.

Elements of a Communication System

Introduction:

Communication system is used to conveying a message from one person to other. By means of an information is the attach which holds people jointly. A communication system is known as grouping of processors and hardware used to bring about the transfer of message through communication. This system having some elements for transfer the signal from source to destination.

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Communication Systems:

A communication system is known as grouping of processors and hardware used to bring about the transfer of message through communication. This process of a system allows us to take total unit.

An energy is need to start the system. The control mechanism regulates the process. That is, it manipulates the message input into whatever form is necessary. The result of this method is the appearance of message in a form which will permit us for communication to take place.

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Elements of communication systems

Let us see about elements of communication systems,

Transmitter:

It is used for modulation and coding the original signal.
In communication system elements, it is used to converting an electrical signal into a form which is comfort for transmission on the physical channel or transmission medium.


Channel:

In communication system elements, the communications channel is known as a communication medium.
It is used to send the signal from the transmitter to the receiver.
The Receiver:

In communication system elements, It is used for demodulation such as decoding the signal from channel.
The receiver is used to recover the message signal enclosed in the received signal.
Noise:

In communication system elements, noise is produced at transmitter due to two process
1. Natural resources 2. Manmade

By nature, such as radiation from sun By manmade, noise made from like vehicles.
This noise can be reduced by using filter.

Initial Velocity

Let us start with the difference between velocity and speed. It is quite obvious after all the discussion about vector and non vector quantities. Speed is basically a measurement with no direction. In case of velocity we also consider direction.

Velocity can be of two types: initial velocity and final velocity. When the object starts its motion then we can say that the initial velocity is zero as it has just started from rest. Similarly we can also consider int. velocity as some constant value. Let us take an example of a car starting from rest and attaining a velocity of 50 km per hour in 1 hour time period.

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So here we can say that the int. velocity of the car is zero and the final velocity is 50 km per hour, directed northwards. Here mentioning the direction is very important as velocity is all about direction, it being a vector quantity.

Let us now discuss Initial velocity formula. We have 3 equations of motion that have a reference to int. velocity and hence can be used for its calculation.
They are as follows:
V = u + a t ------------ > (1)
Here v is the final velocity
U is the int. velocity
A is the acceleration
T is the time period.
So u = v – a t
Also the second equation is
S = u t + 1.5 a t^2 - - - - - - >(2)
Here s is the distance covered in time interval t.
A is the acceleration
We also have a third equation for calculating velocity. It is as follows:
V^2 = u^2 + 2 a s - - - - - - -> (3)

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Here v is the final velocity and a is the initial velocity.
All these are initial velocity equation. We can also say that u^2 = v^2 – 2 a s - - - - - - - > (4)
Let us take a real world example to clear the concept. Let us assume the final velocity of the car is 50 m per sec and the time taken to complete the journey is 2 hours. Also the acceleration is 10 meter per second square. So now using first formula we will try to calculate the initial velocity.
Hence v = u + a t
Or 50 = u + 20
U = 50 – 20 = 30 m per sec

Inertia

Newton’s first law of motion explained that if an object is in rest then it is said to be in rest and when it is moved then it is in motion, so it proves that all objects have natural tendency to be in rest, they resist their motion.

So the property of any object to stop its state of motion is known as inertia. This word can also be described in terms of a resistance in the motion of object. So this is the particular property of an object to stop any alteration in its motion. Please express your views of this topic Angular Acceleration Problems by commenting on blog.

It is basic of classical physics and use to know about the matter’s motion and the effect of applied forces on the motion of matter. In general words, this can also be explained as the resistance to alter in the value of the velocity or the momentum. There is not any particular theory that describes the source of (In).
The law of inertia states the same definition of (In). This explains it as the specific property of any object to stop any change in its motion. As Newton's states that for the movement of an object, the external force is required like friction or gravity.

So first this concept was explained with taking the example of earth as the earth also revolves around the sun. And if the body is moved on a flat surface in a given straight direction then it is continued with its speed with the same direction unless disturbed.

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The Inertia Equation can be written with the use of mass and radius of moving body. So the formula for the (I) may be generally expressed as; I = k m r^2; where m is the mass of body, r is the distance travelled, and k is (I) constant which depends on the shape of the moved body.
For example; if we discuss about the thin-walled hollow cylinder, then the momentum of a thin-walled hollow cylinder is like the point mass. So it can be expressed as; I = m x r^2  and k is equal to one as it is taken one for point mass, where m is hollow’s mass and r is for distance.

Here we are taking two distances; one is the distance between axis and the thin walled hollow and ro is the distance between axis and outside hollow. So for the hollow cylinder: I = 1/2 m (ri2 + ro2). But for a solid cylinder, it is equal to the; I = 1/2 m r^2 (3c).
We can also measure the Product of Inertia by measuring (I) of a moving body in two different axes.  As it is measured by the mass of an object, so the Units of Inertia is kgm2. This is Inertia Units in SI system.

Uses of Solar Energy

Introduction to solar energy

Sun is the primary source of heat and light, all living things need sunlight for it's survival, we are getting various forms solar radiations like UV radiations, gamma radiations,infraded radiations etc, solar energy can be used as various other forms of energy,so, we can use solar energy as alternative sources of energies.In 21st century, obviously we should depend upon alternative sources of energy,because some sources of energy are  limited in nature, so it is known non-renewable sources of energy like fossil fuels,by considering these situations, we should depend upon renewable sources of energy like solar energy.

Solar energy  be used to run vehicles, in solar lights,in solar traffic signals, in solar water heaters, in solar cookers,plants prepare food by the process of photosynthesis using solar energy etc.

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Applications of solar energy


Solar water heaters

Solar water heaters are really boon to the mankind, which conserves other sources of energy and it is eco friendly, in solar water heater it has solar panels consisting of photovoltaic cells,semi conductors, which are made out of silicon chips. these silicon chips absorb solar energy and help in heating up the water, there is an arrangement of inlet and outlet for water. water has to pass through in these set up of solar water heater.

Solar heating system composed of solar thermal collectors, a water storage tank, interconnecting pipes and a fluid system to move the heat from the collector to the tank, so in this process heating up the water by using direct sunlight, no electricity is required.

we can use this solar water heating system for various purposes like under floor heating, heating swimming pools, energy input for space heating or cooling, storing solar energy for future like for winter season by storing solar heat in the ground.

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Solar vehicles


Solar energy can be used to run vehicles like solar bicycle, solar cars, solar autos etc, these vehicles proved and it may replace our existing needs to run vehicles ,basically a solar vehicle is a electrically powered by solar energy. the photovoltaic cells absorb solar energy, then which converted to electrical energy.

Kinds of Forces

Introduction to kinds of force:
Sir Isaac Newton was the first who gave an exact definition of force.He stated that :

Force is the external agency applied on a body to change its state of rest and motion.

There are four basic kinds of forces in nature. They are

Gravitational force
Electromagnetic force
Strong nuclear force
Weak nuclear force
Lets see a brief explanation of the different kinds of forces.

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Explanation of gravitational and electromagnetic forces:


Gravitational force:

It is the force between any two objects in the universe. It is an attractive force by virtue of their masses. By Newton's law of gravitation, the gravitational force between tow bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Gravitational force is the weakest force among the fundamental forces of nature but has the greatest large- scale impact on the universe. Among the basic force only gravity works universally on all matter and energy, and is universally attractive.

Electromagnetic force:

It is the force between charged particles for example the force between two electrons, or the force between tow current carrying wires. Electromagnetic forces for like charges is repulsive and for unlike charges is attractive. The electromagnetic force obeys inverse square law. It is very strong compared to the gravitational force. It is the combination of electrostatic and magnetic forces.

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Explanation of strong and weak nuclear forces:


Strong nuclear force:
It is the strongest of all the basic forces of nature. It, however, has the shortest range, of the order of 10-15 m. This force holds the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus of an atom.

Weak nuclear force:
Weak nuclear force is important in come types of nuclear process such as `beta` -decay. This force is not as weak as the gravitational force.

Average Speed

Average Speed

When a body moves, sometimes it accelerates and other time it decelerates due to the traffic congestion on the road, so the speed of the body is not constant over the whole journey and keeps on changing with respect to several factors.
If we need to calculate the speed for the entire journey it is calculated by finding the total distance travelled and the time taken to travel it. This is known as the average speed of the body for the journey it has travelled.

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Average Speed Formula

The formula for finding the avg speed is;
Saverage = (total distance travelled / total time taken);
where, total distance travelled is equal to the distance between the source and destination of the body and the total time is the time taken to move between the source and destination by the body.

Formula for Average Speed
The formula of avg speed is as follows;
Saverage = (DTotal / TTotal);
DTotal = Total distance travelled the body;
TTotal = Total time taken in travelling the distance DTotal by the body.

Average Speed Definition

The avg speed is defined as the average of the speed of the body over the total distance travelled by it. The body might be travelling at different speed over the portion of the total distance but it maintains the avg speed for the entire journey as constant. The avg speed can be obtained by dividing the distance travelled by the object by the time taken to the distance.
Average is helpful in identifying the speed of the body when it is travelling at different speeds for the different portions of journey. It is used to calculate the speed of the object in varying traffic conditions.

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What is Average Speed

To understand the average let us take an example. A truck is climbing the hill at the speed of 15 km/hr for 1 hour and then it started to slow down as the hill is steeper and travels at 5 km/hr. After 2 hours the truck started to climb down the hill at the speed of 25 km/hr for 1 hour to completely come to the plain.
In this journey as we see the truck is moving at different speed at different time and hence it is difficult to identify the speed of the truck but if divide the total distance travelled by it with the total time it took to travel the total distance then what we obtain is the avg speed.
In this example the avg speed is
Avg speed = 50 / 4 = 12.5 km/hr.

Angular Displacement

Angular Displacement

Displacement is known as the change in the position of body or object with respect to a point of reference. Displacement is a scalar quantity. Similarly when an object or body changes both the position and angle then it’s displacement is calculated as angular displacement.
Angular-displacement is the change of the angle and the position of the body with respect to its initial position and angle.
Although displacement has magnitude and direction still it is a scalar quantity and not the vector quantity.

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Angular Displacement Formula

The angle of displacement is always measured in radians, since it is the change in the angle of the body with respect to its initial position.
The formula to find angle of displacement is given as;
Angular-Displacement = ???
Where,
??? = angle between the initial position of body to its final position.

How to Find Angular Displacement?

For finding angle of displacement, we need to follow these steps;
1. First obtain initial position of the body;
2. Obtain the final position of the body;
3. Find the angle between the two positions;
4. The angle is the measure of the angle of displacement.

In case if the linear displacement and the radius of curve is given then use the following equation to obtain the angle of displacement;
Angular-Displacement = ??? =
Where,
s = linear displacement; and
r = radius of curve through which the body rotates.

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Example of angular displacement:

A car is moving with the speed of 40 km/h on a curved surface having a diameter of 50 cms. Find the angle of displacement of the car along the curve at time t = 10 sec, 20 sec and 50 sec?
Solution:
As given in the question above we need to first identify the linear displacement at different time and then using the relation between the linear displacement and angle of displacement we will find the angle of displacement of the car at different times.
For time t = 10 sec;
s = 40 * (10 / 60 * 60) = 111.11 meters;
so the angle of displacement at time t = 10 sec is;
???t=10 = 111.11 / 0.5 = 222.22 radians

For time t = 20 sec;
s = 40 * (20 / 60 * 60) = 222.22 meters;
so the angle of displacement at time t = 20 sec is;
???t=20 = 222.22 / 0.5 = 444.44 radians

For time t = 50 sec;
s = 40 * (50 / 60 * 60) = 555.55 meters;
so the angle of displacement at time t = 50 sec is;
???t=50 = 555.55 / 0.5 = 1111.11 radians

Man Landing on Mars

Introduction to man landing on mars:

Mars is the 4th planet from the sun.  It is called the "Red planet" because of its reddish appearance. Mars have similar surface feature compared to our earth and moon such as volcanoes, valleys, deserts, polar ice caps and the impact craters of the moon.The seasonal cycles of mars as well as the rotational period is very much similar to the Earth. Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos. Mars was formed around the same time as the Earth. Both Mars and earth are rocky planets. Mars diameter is almost half the diameter of the earth, a far thin atmosphere and desert-like surface too. Mars has the same land area as the Earth as we know that our earth's surface has only a quarter area of land, the remaining being water.



Exploration of Mars


The Soviet Union, United States of America, Europe and Japan are active participants in the space exploration program which involves the exploration of the planet Mars. Dozens of robotic spacecraft, including rovers, landers and orbiters have been launched towards Mars since 1960s. These missions were carried out in order to gather data about the planet's current conditions and history and also whether any  possibility for the sustenance of human life on the planet.

After many attempts of landing on Venus, Venera-7 landed on Venus in the year 1970. Another, Mariner-10 has also passed by Mercury and sent back pictures of the mountains and the craters there. Mars is even more interesting and both the Russians and Americans have sent space crafts to it. The Viking, launched by the Americans made gentle landing there in 1976, sending back pictures direct from the surface. Jupiter and Saturn have also been bypassed. Both Voyager-I and 2 sent back clear pictures of Jupiter's clouds and moons and the rings of Saturn whereas Viking I and II sent back data about the Martian atmosphere and soil apart from sending images of Mars.

Meanwhile the USA and the former USSR undertook a joint US-Soviet manned space mission called the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. The Apollo Spacecraft carrying three astronauts and the Soyuz-19 Spacecraft, carrying two cosmonauts were launched separately on 15th July 1975. Two days later, the spacecraft approached each other and docked in space. For two days, the crew conducted joint experiments and surveys. Many other probes were launched during the decade of the seventies. The space probe Pioneer-10 sent by USA explored the asteroid belt and took photographs of Jupiter from a close range.

The eighties have seen many significant developments in space science. Space shuttles were designed by the US. The space shuttle takes off like a rocket, flies like a spaceship and lands like a glider. Unlike an ordinary rocket it can be used again and again. The picture below shows a space shuttle Columbia gliding into land. This first space shuttle was launched in 1981.


Landing of Man on Mars


The permanent manned space station called Mir was launched by the Soviet Union in 1986. Since then many crew have manned this space station and conducted experiments in space.

The year 1997 marked the return to the red planet. For almost twenty years every Mars mission ended in failure. The two Russian Phobos crafts failed. The US Mars observer exploded as it prepared to enter the planet's orbit and the mighty Russian Mars' 96 craft did not escape from earth's atmosphere. Finally Mars path finder parachuted down to Mars and its new landing technology proved to be a success. A little six-wheeled river Sojourner, spent nearly three months analyzing Martian rocks before the battery went flat. More missions have been planned, to bring rock samples to earth and even to land first human on Mars.

Barack Obama the "President of the United States of America"  truly believes that in the next 20-25 years, humans can be sent to orbit Mars followed by a safe landing and shall return safely back to earth. A number of nations and organisations have long-term intentions to send Humans to the planet Mars. The United States  has a number  of missions currently exploring Mars. The European nations has sent robotic probes and has long-term plans to send humans too. Russia, Japan and China are keen in sending humans to Mars too.

"Its high time the beings in outer space stop chomping on their Alien bars,

Because the humans are bound to land on MARS"

Used Appliances

Introduction to used appliances:

Do you want that stunningly looking LED home theater television at Joe’s as yours? It’s not at all a big deal to own it. Just pay a visit to your nearest used appliances selling outlet. It won’t kill your urge to own one. I swear.

Second hand selling market is a trend everywhere around the globe. Anything is available for a reasonable price with reliable servicing offers. When you sell your old buggy television in order to get it exchanged with a new one, just remember one thing. Someone else is there to buy that product for a big amount of money for the same product that you just abandoned for a cheap price.



E-waste


It’s a real fact that many families with low living standards are enjoying their lives using these appliances that you consider as an e-waste. The stores that accept the used appliances may have a thorough check up on the products to find any inappropriate things that may cost as unfavorable while reselling it. They might give some advertisements carrying fancy words that the products they are selling are gently used, old reliable goods etc. It’s all are the methods to catch the attention of the middle class customers. They all win in that also.
.

Selling of used appliances


The products are sold with a label of gently used goods. So through this label they can gain the trust of the customers. The customer comes to a used appliances shop to buy a product which he already knows much about. So the shop owner cannot play tricks on him much like he did while selling a new product. But he can hide any faults to some extent. For example, there is a CRT television displayed to get sold. The television might be having some faults like failing of picture tube to display after 10 minutes or like that. This type of faults can be easily hidden from a customer. Also the shop owner can argue and win that it is something that went wrong with the customer’s household electric connection that caused damage to the picture tube.

The used appliance market is a safer place to bargain if you are confident about the reliability of the product. Also you will get better service for that too. Most shops offer 30 days warranty for their products.

Universe Solar System

Introduction to Universe Solar System:

Family of the sun is given the name solar system. Sun is the centre of solar system. Nine planets are revolving around the sun in the elliptical orbits. The distnace of the planets from the sun and their velocities keep on changing as they revolve around the sun.

Some other heavenly bodies also revolve around the planets and are called satellites. These are also called moons of the planets. Some other heavenly bodies revolving around the sun are asteroids, comets and meteors etc.

Let us discuss about universe solar system and its objects in detail:

Description of universe solar system:

1. Sun:

- It is the nearest star that we can see.

- It shines of its own.

- It is also called luminous body of our solar system

- The mass of the sun is 1.99 x 1030 kgm and its diameter is 1.4 x 109 m.

- It is about 109 times the diameter of the earth.

- The average distance of the sun from earth is about 1.496 x 1011 m, which is called one astronomical unit (A.U.). It is a unit used for the measurement of large distances.

- Sun rotates about its axis from east to west and completes one rotation in approximately 30 days.

2. Planets:

- Planets appear to be bright and do not emit light of their own. They reflect light of sun.

- These heavenly bodies revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits.

- Nine planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. These planets are written in the order of increasing distance from the sun.


Some other Objects in Universe Solar System:


3. Asteroids:

- Asteroids are very tiny planets (pieces of large planets) revolving around the sun between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

- Like regular planets, asteroids also revolve in elliptical orbits nearly in the same plane as that of the earth.

- The largest asteroid is called Ceres having radius  350 km and the smallest one is having radius only 50 m.

4. Comets:

- Comets are made up of rock like material surrounded by large masses of easily vapourised substances like water, ammonia and methane.

- The comets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits.

- As comets come closer to the sun, the water vaporizes due to heat of sun.

- The light of sun exerts a pressure on these vapours and forces them to move away from the comet in the form of a tail.

- Edmund Halley discovered a comet in 18th century named as Halley's comet. This comet completes its orbit around the sun in 76 years. It can be seen in the sky after every 76 years. Last, Halley's comet was seen from earth in April 1986.

5. Meteors:

- When comets break while approaching the sun, the smaller pieces become visible.

- When they enter earth's atmosphere and heat up due to friction, they catch fire while moving towards earth.

- Therefore, we see a streakof light during night.

- These 'shooting stars' are known as meteors.

- They are of different sizes and weights.

- Most of them are in small sizes, and get completely burnt and do not reach earth. These are called meteors.

- Some heavy meteors landing on the earth are called meteorites.

- One of the biggest meteorites fell in Siberia on June 30, 1908.

Adding Sugar to Water

Introduction to adding sugar to water:

Sugar is a crystalline carbohydrate. It comes from sugarcane. It is sweet in taste. When added to the water, the sugar particles break down into smaller pieces. These small particles then arrange themselves together with the water particles and form a liquid solution..Sugar particle will no longer be visible with our naked eyes.

Sugar is soluble in water. When you add sugar to water and dissolve it volume of water before sugar is added is lesser than the volume of sugar in water. When we add sugar to water, the sugar crystal dissolves and it goes into the solution. Infinite number of sugar cannot be dissolved in a fixed volume of water. When as much sugar is dissolved, the solution is called saturated solution. The saturation point is different at different temperature .more sugar is held in a water, if the temperature is higher.


Adding sugar to water:


The size of the sugar crystal increases by the following process

1) Add sugar to the boiled water and stir it., till it dissolves.
2) Pour the solution in a jar and cover it with a waxed paper.

3) Dip a cotton string in a sugar solution, take it out, and dry it for few days.

4) The string after drying should be suspended in sugar solution and left undisturbed for seven days. at the end of seven days ,we will see that the size of a sugar crystal has grown in size with sharp edges and smooth faces. Dissolve more sugar to water on heating. by this solution becomes supersaturated. And the process of crystallization begins, once the heated solution cools down.

Explanation to adding sugar to water:


Add a pinch of sugar to water and feed a plant. That has wilted. And is not watered for a few days. the sugar helps the plants to get back to normal quickly. But this doesn’t always work. If the amount of sugar in the soil becomes too high, it promotes a higher incidence of fungi and bacteria. A typical fungus that thrives on sugar is yeast. Excess amounts of yeast causes an increase in the risk of an infection to plants and humans.

Planet With Largest Moon

Introduction to planet with largest moon:

A solid heavenly body that revolves around the planet is called its natural satellite or its moon. For example, moon is the natural satellite of the earth because it revolves around the earth. Moons do not have their own light. They reflect the sunlight falling on them and therefore, appear shining. Except Mercury and Venus, all planets have their own  moons. In general, moons are much smaller than the planets. We can see the earth’s moon by unaided eye. The other moons of other planets were discovered after the invention of astronomical telescope and a large number of moons were discovered only after the spacecraft flew past them. The different moons have different features; some of them are earth’s like moon having large number of craters. Some of the asteroids have moon also. The asteroid IDA has also a moon. The planet Saturn has largest moon named as Titan.


Largest moon with planet:


Saturn is the second largest planet of our solar system. Saturn is known as the Jovian planet, because its structure is like Jupiter. Voyager explore the Saturn in 1980 – 81. Saturn is the sixth planet of our solar system. Saturn is the only planet whose rings are visible form the earth’s based optical instruments. The rings of the Saturn are formed by particles of ice and dust revolving around the planet. The particles in the ring having size in nanometers to meters.


Characteristics of the Planet with largest moon:


The density of the Saturn is less than the density of water. The atmosphere of Saturn mainly contains hydrogen, helium and methane. Saturn has 62 moons at present. Out of 62 moons, 53 are well named. Titan is the largest moon of the Saturn. The atmosphere of Titan is nitrogen rich as like earth in early years. Saturn is flat at poles so that it rotates very fast on its axis. Saturn takes 10 hours 39 minutes to rotate on its own axis and 29.5 earth’s year to revolve around the sun. The wind blows at very high speed on Saturn. The size of Titan is more than the size of planet Mercury.

Negative and Positive Wires

Introduction to negative and positive wires:

Let us first discuss about electricity, which can pass through the wires. There are two types of current, one is called the alternating current, which is used, in electrical mains and the other is called direct current, which is used, in the car’s light and in the radio. Direct current is obtained by the battery.  Let us discuss the wires, which carry the electric current.


Types of Negative and positive wires


Generally, there are three types of the wires:

Positive wire,
Negative wire and
Ground wire


In case of direct current, the positive wire is the wire, which carries 120 V. Negative wire is the wire, which has about 0 V. Ground wire is actually connected to the ground. Negative wires should be at zero potential or close to zero potential. It is the central point between the two phases of the electrical service coming to your house from the transformer on the electrical pole. Positive wire is the wire, which supplies the electric current to the electrical appliance. It is supplied to the devices in your home through a set of circuit breakers or fuses in older homes. It is wired directly to the outlets, and goes to the permanently installed lighting through the permanent wall switches. There is a standard colors in house wiring are: positive wire is of red color, negative wire is of black in color and the ground wire is of green in color.


Conclusion for negative and positive wires


Some of the devices in our daily life have only two flat prongs, and some have the third, round grounding prong. The two-prong devices are typically low current, low-power devices like lamps, bulbs, clock radios, can openers and the like. The third prong generally appears on higher-powered devices: washing machines, vacuum cleaners, televisions, computers, leaf blowers, drills, etc. This is usually done for safety reasons. This is also, why miswired outlets are dangerous: if the neutral and hot are reversed, the appliance will work just the same. However, if the appliance fails, the 'stray' energy remains under the 'top' insulating layer (next to the user), Not in the bottom one, putting the user at much greater risk. In older tools with metal cases, the user would actually get electric shocks in this event.