How to Read Electrical Circuits

Introduction on how to read electrical circuits:

Electrical circuits are the combinations of different electrical appliances connected in a particular manner. Electrical circuit is the symbolic representation of the circuit, which helps us to define all the parameters of the circuits such as voltage, current, resistance, capacitance and inductance, etc. It is the diagram in which all the electrical appliances connect. It is the very short way to create the circuit.

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Concept of reading electrical circuits:


In the electrical circuit, first find the values that is given in the standard units. Such as resistance in micro ohms so convert it in ohms, current in milli-ampere then convert it in ampere, voltage in milli-volt so convert it in volt, capacitance in micro farad so convert it in farad. Now first find the equivalent resistance of the circuit.

We have two formulae for finding the equivalent resistance one for series combination of resistances and other for the parallel resistances.

For the series combination of resistances Rs = R1 + R2 + R3

For the parallel combination of resistances `Rp = 1/ (R1) + 1/(R2) + 1/(R3)`

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Procedure for reading electric circuit:


To read any electrical circuit first find that which of the resistances are in series combination and which are in the parallel combination. Now apply the formula for finding the equivalent resistance. Now we use ohm’s law to find the respective current.

First, always try to find the current in the whole circuit and then try to find the potential difference across the series resistance. As we know the potential difference of the series resistance now try to find the potential difference of the parallel resistance. Now again using the Ohm’s law find the current in the remaining resistances. As we know the current and the potential of each resistance, we completely read the electrical circuit. If the circuit containing capacitors then we use the same procedure.  But the formula to find the equivalent capacitor is different from the resistors.

For the series combination of capacitors  `1/C_S = 1/(C1) + 1/ (C2) + 1/(C3)`

For the parallel combination of capacitors Cp = C1 + C2 + C3  same procedure is to followed to completely read the electrical circuit.

Two Types of Reflection

Introduction to Two types of Reflection

When light traveling in one medium strikes a boundary leading to another medium, a part of incident light is through back into the original medium one. This phenomenon is called reflection of light.

Reflection is of two types:

Regular reflection
Irregular reflection or diffuse reflection

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The Two types of reflection


1.    Regular reflection: When the reflection surface is smooth and well polished, the parallel rays falling on it are reflected parallel to another one, the reflected light goes in one particular direction. This is regular reflection. The smooth and well polished surface is called mirror. Silver metal is one of the best reflectors of light. So, ordinary mirrors are made by depositing a thin layer of silver metal on one side of a plane glass sheet. The silver layer is protected by a coat of red paint. The reflection of light in a mirror takes place at the silver surface. A plane mirror is represented by a straight line, with a number of short, oblique lines showing back of the mirror.

2.    Irregular reflection: When the reflecting surface is rough, the parallel rays falling on it are reflected in different direction. Such a reflection is known as diffuse reflection or irregular reflection or even scattering of light. In this, a surface will behave as a smooth surface as long as the surfaces variations are small as compared to the wavelength of incident light. As wavelength of visible light is very small therefore, every surface acts as a rough surface and scattering of light or irregular reflection is more common. For example, any object in a room can be seen from all the parts of the room. This is because surface of the object is rough and it scatters or reflects light in all directions.

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Two types of Reflection : Summary


Reflection of light is the phenomenon of bouncing back of light in the same medium on striking the surface of any object.

Energy Bands in Silicon

Introduction to Energy Bands in silicon:

Before we start with energy bands in silicon,  let us know about energy bands.The energy band of any solid is a structure which describes the allowed and the forbidden values of energies for that solid. The energy band is a function of the diffracted quantum mechanical electron waves which are present in a periodic crystal lattice which have a specific crystal system and specific Bravais lattice.

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Reason behind formation of energy band in elements like silicon


As the electrons of any single isolated atom occupy several atomic orbitals which are in the form of set energy level that are discrete. If a molecule is formed by several atoms, which are brought together, the atomic levels of the atoms split and form a coupled oscillation. Similarly if a large number of atoms of the order of 1020 or more are brought together in the form of a solid, the atomic levels are very large in number and the energy difference between the two energy levels is very small which give rise to a continuous band of the energy levels.


Description of Energy Bands in Silicon


The Fermi level is one of the important levels in the energy band of any material because it determines the nature of the material i.e. the material is conductor or insulator or the semiconductor. The silicon is a semiconductor material and for it the Fermi level is exists essentially in the halfway between the valence and the conduction bands of the silicon. In silicon at 0 K temperatures there is no conduction of electron but at finite temperatures the electrons moves from valence band to the conduction band and the number of electrons which reaches the conduction band contributes for the flow of current in silicon and this current can be modeled by Fermi function.

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Conclusion for Energy Bands in Silicon


There are some intervals in the energy bands which contain no levels or the orbitals these interval forms the energy band gaps. The energy bands of any material determine several characteristics like the electronic and the optical properties of the material.

Elements of a Communication System

Introduction:

Communication system is used to conveying a message from one person to other. By means of an information is the attach which holds people jointly. A communication system is known as grouping of processors and hardware used to bring about the transfer of message through communication. This system having some elements for transfer the signal from source to destination.

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Communication Systems:

A communication system is known as grouping of processors and hardware used to bring about the transfer of message through communication. This process of a system allows us to take total unit.

An energy is need to start the system. The control mechanism regulates the process. That is, it manipulates the message input into whatever form is necessary. The result of this method is the appearance of message in a form which will permit us for communication to take place.

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Elements of communication systems

Let us see about elements of communication systems,

Transmitter:

It is used for modulation and coding the original signal.
In communication system elements, it is used to converting an electrical signal into a form which is comfort for transmission on the physical channel or transmission medium.


Channel:

In communication system elements, the communications channel is known as a communication medium.
It is used to send the signal from the transmitter to the receiver.
The Receiver:

In communication system elements, It is used for demodulation such as decoding the signal from channel.
The receiver is used to recover the message signal enclosed in the received signal.
Noise:

In communication system elements, noise is produced at transmitter due to two process
1. Natural resources 2. Manmade

By nature, such as radiation from sun By manmade, noise made from like vehicles.
This noise can be reduced by using filter.

Initial Velocity

Let us start with the difference between velocity and speed. It is quite obvious after all the discussion about vector and non vector quantities. Speed is basically a measurement with no direction. In case of velocity we also consider direction.

Velocity can be of two types: initial velocity and final velocity. When the object starts its motion then we can say that the initial velocity is zero as it has just started from rest. Similarly we can also consider int. velocity as some constant value. Let us take an example of a car starting from rest and attaining a velocity of 50 km per hour in 1 hour time period.

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So here we can say that the int. velocity of the car is zero and the final velocity is 50 km per hour, directed northwards. Here mentioning the direction is very important as velocity is all about direction, it being a vector quantity.

Let us now discuss Initial velocity formula. We have 3 equations of motion that have a reference to int. velocity and hence can be used for its calculation.
They are as follows:
V = u + a t ------------ > (1)
Here v is the final velocity
U is the int. velocity
A is the acceleration
T is the time period.
So u = v – a t
Also the second equation is
S = u t + 1.5 a t^2 - - - - - - >(2)
Here s is the distance covered in time interval t.
A is the acceleration
We also have a third equation for calculating velocity. It is as follows:
V^2 = u^2 + 2 a s - - - - - - -> (3)

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Here v is the final velocity and a is the initial velocity.
All these are initial velocity equation. We can also say that u^2 = v^2 – 2 a s - - - - - - - > (4)
Let us take a real world example to clear the concept. Let us assume the final velocity of the car is 50 m per sec and the time taken to complete the journey is 2 hours. Also the acceleration is 10 meter per second square. So now using first formula we will try to calculate the initial velocity.
Hence v = u + a t
Or 50 = u + 20
U = 50 – 20 = 30 m per sec

Inertia

Newton’s first law of motion explained that if an object is in rest then it is said to be in rest and when it is moved then it is in motion, so it proves that all objects have natural tendency to be in rest, they resist their motion.

So the property of any object to stop its state of motion is known as inertia. This word can also be described in terms of a resistance in the motion of object. So this is the particular property of an object to stop any alteration in its motion. Please express your views of this topic Angular Acceleration Problems by commenting on blog.

It is basic of classical physics and use to know about the matter’s motion and the effect of applied forces on the motion of matter. In general words, this can also be explained as the resistance to alter in the value of the velocity or the momentum. There is not any particular theory that describes the source of (In).
The law of inertia states the same definition of (In). This explains it as the specific property of any object to stop any change in its motion. As Newton's states that for the movement of an object, the external force is required like friction or gravity.

So first this concept was explained with taking the example of earth as the earth also revolves around the sun. And if the body is moved on a flat surface in a given straight direction then it is continued with its speed with the same direction unless disturbed.

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The Inertia Equation can be written with the use of mass and radius of moving body. So the formula for the (I) may be generally expressed as; I = k m r^2; where m is the mass of body, r is the distance travelled, and k is (I) constant which depends on the shape of the moved body.
For example; if we discuss about the thin-walled hollow cylinder, then the momentum of a thin-walled hollow cylinder is like the point mass. So it can be expressed as; I = m x r^2  and k is equal to one as it is taken one for point mass, where m is hollow’s mass and r is for distance.

Here we are taking two distances; one is the distance between axis and the thin walled hollow and ro is the distance between axis and outside hollow. So for the hollow cylinder: I = 1/2 m (ri2 + ro2). But for a solid cylinder, it is equal to the; I = 1/2 m r^2 (3c).
We can also measure the Product of Inertia by measuring (I) of a moving body in two different axes.  As it is measured by the mass of an object, so the Units of Inertia is kgm2. This is Inertia Units in SI system.

Uses of Solar Energy

Introduction to solar energy

Sun is the primary source of heat and light, all living things need sunlight for it's survival, we are getting various forms solar radiations like UV radiations, gamma radiations,infraded radiations etc, solar energy can be used as various other forms of energy,so, we can use solar energy as alternative sources of energies.In 21st century, obviously we should depend upon alternative sources of energy,because some sources of energy are  limited in nature, so it is known non-renewable sources of energy like fossil fuels,by considering these situations, we should depend upon renewable sources of energy like solar energy.

Solar energy  be used to run vehicles, in solar lights,in solar traffic signals, in solar water heaters, in solar cookers,plants prepare food by the process of photosynthesis using solar energy etc.

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Applications of solar energy


Solar water heaters

Solar water heaters are really boon to the mankind, which conserves other sources of energy and it is eco friendly, in solar water heater it has solar panels consisting of photovoltaic cells,semi conductors, which are made out of silicon chips. these silicon chips absorb solar energy and help in heating up the water, there is an arrangement of inlet and outlet for water. water has to pass through in these set up of solar water heater.

Solar heating system composed of solar thermal collectors, a water storage tank, interconnecting pipes and a fluid system to move the heat from the collector to the tank, so in this process heating up the water by using direct sunlight, no electricity is required.

we can use this solar water heating system for various purposes like under floor heating, heating swimming pools, energy input for space heating or cooling, storing solar energy for future like for winter season by storing solar heat in the ground.

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Solar vehicles


Solar energy can be used to run vehicles like solar bicycle, solar cars, solar autos etc, these vehicles proved and it may replace our existing needs to run vehicles ,basically a solar vehicle is a electrically powered by solar energy. the photovoltaic cells absorb solar energy, then which converted to electrical energy.